山西大學(xué)外國語學(xué)院吳亞欣

1、12Subject: Hi, Mary. How is the work going?Experimenter: What do you mean, “How is it going?” Do you mean mentally or financially?Subject: I mean “How is it going?” Whats the matter with you?Experimenter: Nothing. Could you just explain a little clearer what you want to know?Subject: Skip it. How is

2、 that new project coming?Experimenter: What do you mean, “How is it coming?”Subject: You know what I mean.Experimenter: I really dont.Subject: Whats the matter with you? Are you sick?3“Language use and communication are in fact pervasively and even intrinsically flawed, partial, and problematic” (Co

3、upland, Giles & Wiemann, 1991, p.3)4“during the process of interpersonal communication, participants tolerate a rather-high degree of non-acknowledged, unresolved potential misunderstanding” (Blum-Kulka & Wiezman, 1989)5The co-pilot repeatedly called attention to the bad weather and to ice b

4、uilding up on other planes:Co-pilotCo-pilot: Look how the ice is just hanging on his, ah, back, back there, see that?CaptainCaptain: Side there. Co-pilotCo-pilot: See all those icicles on the back there and everything?CaptainCaptain: Yeah.He expressed concern early on about the long waiting time bet

5、ween de-icing:6Co-pilotCo-pilot: Boy, this is a, this is a losing battle here on trying to de-ice those things, it (gives) you a false feeling of security, thats all that does.Shortly after they were given clearance to take off, he again expressed concern:Co-pilotCo-pilot: Lets check these tops agai

6、n since we been setting here awhile.CaptainCaptain: I think we get to go here in a minute.7When they were about to take off, the co-pilot called attention to the engine instrument readings, which were not normal:Co-pilotCo-pilot: That dont seem right, does it? (3-second pause).Ah, thats not right. (

7、2-second pause) (Well)CaptainCaptain: Yes, it is, theres eighty.Co-pilotCo-pilot: Naw, I dont think thats right. (7-second pause) Ah, maybe it is.CaptainCaptain: Hundred and twenty.Co-pilotCo-pilot: I dont know.8The takeoff proceeded, and thirty-seven seconds later the pilot and co-pilot exchanged t

8、heir last words:Co-pilotCo-pilot: Larry, were going down, Larry.CaptainCaptain: I know it.(Sound of impact)(Tannen 1994: 92-93)91011“all words have multiple meanings. These meanings are narrowed down by the context in which the words are used.” (Heyman, 1994, p.9)12語言的意義依賴于語境13The car you saw today

9、and intend to buy tomorrow, somebody saw yesterday and intends to buy today.(Sign displayed in a Mazda showroom)(Cited from Grundy, 2000, p. 22)14I mean if you come this way youre into theres a road here and theres a circulating ring road and if you come this way theres a very tight corner here. (Gr

10、undy, 2000, p.36)15 (Costello) On the Saint Louis team we have Whos on first, Whats on second, I Dont Knows on third.(Abbott) Thats what I want to find out. I want you to tell me the names of the fellows on the Saint Louis team. (Costello) I, Im telling you Whos on first, Whats on second, I Dont Kno

11、ws on third.(Abbott) You know the fellows names?(Costello) Yes.(Abbott) Well then, Whos playing first?(Costello) Yes.(Abbott) I mean, the fellows name on first base.16(Costello) Who.(Abbott) The fellow playing first base for Saint Louis.(Costello) Who.(Abbott) The guy on first base.(Costello) Who is

12、 on first.(Abbott) Well, what are you asking me for?(Costello) Im not asking you, Im telling you, Who is on first.(Abbott) Im asking you: Whos on first?17“The meaning (of language) depends on our interpretation, which is based on the context; at the same time, the context is also an interpretation.

13、Meaning (of language) and context each provide the grounds for the other .” (Heyman, 1994, p. 10)18這次全國語用學(xué)研討會(huì)是最有地方特色的一次研討會(huì)。19語言的反身性反身性：語言使用的語境要靠語言的意義來界定。或者換句話講，語言的意義和語境之間是互相界定的。 20One day as David was walking down the hall, his boss called him into her office and said, “David, what do you think of a

14、ffirmative action?” Davids immediate response was “It certainly hasnt hurt our company. Especially since we depend on government contracts for much of our work.” Looking serious, his boss then responded, “Yes, I know, but I was thinking of affirmative action with respect to my son who is applying to

15、 law school this year. Hes afraid that he might not get in unless he scores really high on the law aptitude test because so many women and minority groups are applying” (. (Cited from Heyman, 1994, p. 18)2122“Much even most- meaning in conversation does not reside in the words spoken at all, but is

16、filled in by the person listening. Each of us decides whether we think others are speaking in the spirit of differing status or symmetrical connection. The likelihood that individuals will tend to interpret someone elses words as one or the other depends more on the hearers own focus, concerns, and

17、habits than on the spirit in which the words were intended. ”(Tannen, 1990, p.37)23主體性：人對(duì)世界認(rèn)識(shí)及其表征的個(gè)體差異性。差異的可能原因：交際的環(huán)境，交際者的性別、性格、喜好、情感狀態(tài)、交際時(shí)所關(guān)心的事情、意圖、習(xí)慣、成長中所接受的文化等。24Egyptian pilots radioed their intention to land at an airbase on Cyprus and the Greek traffic controllers reportedly responded with sil

18、ence. The Greeks intended thereby to indicate refusal of permission to land, but the Egyptians interpreted silence as assent. The result of the misunderstanding in this case was the loss of a number of lives when Greeks fired on the planes as they approached the runway. (Saville-Troike, 1985p.11)25

19、(A is preparing a meal in the kitchen. B is in the living room next to it. Both rooms are connected by a door.)(8.1) A: I want to hear the news. Keep the door open.(8.2) B: Thats not possible. Our neighbour is at home.(8.3) A: Keep the door open. I am coming.(E. Weigand / Journal of Pragmatics 31 (1

20、999) 763-785 777)26心理傾向指的是由于受心理或社會(huì)因素的影響，人會(huì)做出非理性的錯(cuò)誤判斷的傾向，是認(rèn)知科學(xué)和社會(huì)心理學(xué)研究的一種現(xiàn)象，可分為動(dòng)機(jī)傾向（motivational biases）和認(rèn)知傾向（cognitive biases），前者指的是人們傾向于進(jìn)行和自己的需要和愿望相一致的推理，避免做和自己的需要和愿望相悖的推理，受此類動(dòng)機(jī)影響，很容易導(dǎo)致非理性的推理錯(cuò)誤；后者是由于受人們認(rèn)知能力所限，無法顧及和加工所有可為其所用的信息，而導(dǎo)致系統(tǒng)性的偏離常規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的推理錯(cuò)誤。無論是哪種心理傾向，都是在非理性的、主觀心理因素的影響下表現(xiàn)出的對(duì)多個(gè)可能的判斷和結(jié)論中的某一個(gè)判斷的偏

21、好（Kruglanski and Ajzen 1983）。27匹配傾向（matching bias）注意傾向（attentional bias）信念傾向（belief bias）證實(shí)傾向（confirmation bias）代表性（representativeness）可及性（availability）、基點(diǎn)與調(diào)整（anchoring and adjustment）三種經(jīng)驗(yàn)推理方法.28（成人A和小孩B一起散步。A手里拿著B想要玩的皮球和B在路上采的花。過了一會(huì)兒，A讓B拿住皮球。） （1）A: Can you hold the ball? (A gives B the ball)（2）B: And you keep the flower.（3）A: Do you want it?（4）B: No, you keep it.（摘自Weigand 1999）29(席間)A: 今天早上真冷，都打不著車。B：今天你打車上班的？C：現(xiàn)在的車都先進(jìn)了，天再冷，一般也可以打著。A：第一下沒打著。B：我還以為你打的上班了呢。C：你怎么會(huì)這么理解呢？難道你不知道天冷的時(shí)候車不容易發(fā)動(dòng)嗎？B：知道啊!A前一段時(shí)間因?yàn)榻?jīng)常堵車，就沒開車，打過一段時(shí)間的。C：噢。這點(diǎn)我不知道。 30Old Lady 1 : “Is this sto