2024反腐敗指南之中國篇（英）

CHAMBERSGLOBALPRACTICEGUIDES

Anti-Corruption2024

Definitivegloballawguidesofferingcomparativeanalysisfromtop-rankedlawyers

China:Law&Practice

AlanZhou,JackyLi,WeiweiGu,StevenZhu

andJennyChen

GlobalLawOffice

CHINA

LawandPractice

Contributedby:

AlanZhou,JackyLi,WeiweiGu,StevenZhuandJennyChenGlobalLawOffice

Contents

1.LegalFrameworkforOffencesp.6

1.1 InternationalConventionsp.6

1.2 NationalLegislationp.6

1.3 GuidelinesfortheInterpretationandEnforcementofNationalLegislationp.7

1.4 RecentKeyAmendmentstoNationalLegislationp.7

2.ClassificationandConstituentElementsp.8

2.1 Briberyp.8

2.2 Influence-Peddlingp.9

2.3 FinancialRecord-Keepingp.9

2.4 PublicOfficialsp.10

2.5 Intermediariesp.11

3.Scopep.12

3.1 LimitationPeriodp.12

3.2 GeographicalReachofApplicableLegislationp.12

3.3 CorporateLiabilityp.13

4.DefencesandExceptionsp.13

4.1 Defencesp.13

4.2 Exceptionsp.14

4.3 DeMinimisExceptionsp.14

4.4 ExemptSectors/Industriesp.14

4.5 SafeHarbourorAmnestyProgrammep.15

5.Penaltiesp.15

5.1 PenaltiesonConvictionp.15

5.2 GuidelinesApplicabletotheAssessmentofPenaltiesp.16

6.ComplianceandDisclosurep.17

6.1 NationalLegislationandDutiestoPreventCorruptionp.17

6.2 RegulationofLobbyingActivitiesp.17

6.3 DisclosureofViolationsofAnti-briberyandAnti-corruptionProvisionsp.17

6.4 ProtectionAffordedtoWhistle-Blowersp.18

6.5 IncentivesforWhistle-Blowersp.18

6.6 LocationofRelevantProvisionsRegardingWhistle-Blowingp.19

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7.Enforcementp.19

7.1 EnforcementofAnti-briberyandAnti-corruptionLawsp.19

7.2 EnforcementBodyp.19

7.3 ProcessofApplicationforDocumentationp.19

7.4 DiscretionforMitigationp.19

7.5 JurisdictionalReachoftheBody/Bodiesp.20

7.6 RecentLandmarkInvestigationsorDecisionsInvolvingBriberyorCorruptionp.20

7.7 LevelofSanctionsImposedp.21

8.Reviewp.21

8.1 AssessmentoftheApplicableEnforcedLegislationp.21

8.2 LikelyChangestotheApplicableLegislationoftheEnforcementBodyp.22

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CHINALawandPractice

Contributedby:AlanZhou,JackyLi,WeiweiGu,StevenZhuandJennyChen,GlobalLawOffice

GlobalLawOfficedatesbacktotheestablish-mentoftheLegalConsultantOfficeoftheChinaCouncilforthePromotionofInternationalTradein1979,whenitbecamethefirstChineselawfirmeverapprovedbythePRCgovernment,andithasretainedtheprivilegeofclients’trustinvariousareasoverfourdecades.ThefirmhasofficesinShanghai,Beijing,ShenzhenandChengdu,with160partnersandover600law-yersacrossChina.Thefirmisexperiencedin

meetingallaspectsofpublicandprivateenter-prises’regulatorycomplianceneeds,includingriskassessment,compliancepolicy,reporting,trainingandinvestigation.Thefirmhasresolveddozensofgovernmentinvestigationcasesre-latingtoanti-corruption,antitrust,promotionandadvertising,insidertrading,andfoodanddrugsafetybytheChineseauthorities,aswellascross-borderinvestigationsinmultiplejuris-dictions.

Authors

AlanZhouisapartneratGlobalLawOfficebasedinShanghai.Hispracticeisfocusedontheareasofgeneralcorporate,transactions,complianceandriskcontrol.Asanexperton

legalissuessurroundingcomplianceandM&AinChina,MrZhouhasextensiveexperienceinsolvingcomplexandchallengingissuesandadvisingoncreativeandstrategicsolutions.Hehasaparticularlystrongbackgroundinthelifesciencesandhealthcareindustries.Asaparticipantorasanexternalcounsel,MrZhouhasbeenengagedbylocalauthoritiesandindustrialassociationsforadviceonlegislationandindustrialstandardsrelatingtoonlinehospitals,digitalmarketing,medicalinsurancereform,medicalrepresentativemanagementandothercompliancematters.

JackyLiisapartneratGlobalLawOfficebasedinShanghai,focusinghispracticeontheareasofregulatorycompliance,internalandgovernmentinvestigations,riskcontrol,

competitionlawanddisputeresolution.Heiswellversedinhandlingcomplexcomplianceinvestigations/projectsinconnectionwithanti-corruption,antitrust,white-collarcrime,dataandcybersecurity,assistingmultinationalandChinesestate-ownedenterprisesinidentifyingpotentialwrongdoers,assessingparametersoflegalliability,andinteractingwithmulti-jurisdictiongovernmentauthorities.MrLiisacertifiedfraudexamineroftheUSACFE,acertifiedexpertoftheUKLawReviewsExpertPanel,andastandingmemberoftheShanghaiBarAssociationLawandComplianceCommittee.

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WeiweiGuisapartneratGlobalLawOfficebasedinShanghai.Hismainpracticeareasincludedisputeresolution,compliance,antitrustandemployment.MrGuhasdealtwithhundredsof

casesintheareaofcommercialdisputeresolution.HeassistsbothmultinationalenterprisesandmajorChineseenterprises,suchastheIFC,DeutscheBank,StandardChartered,BNP,UBSSandCDBCapital.MrGuhasrichexperienceingovernmentinvestigations,particularlyregardinganti-corruptionandantitrustmatters.Healsoadviseshisclientsonregulatorymatterssuchasconductinginternalinvestigationsanddevelopingrisk-controlprocedures.Hehasparticularexperienceinlabourandemploymentlaw.

StevenZhuisapartneratGlobalLawOfficebasedinBeijing.Hefocuseshispracticeoncross-borderM&A,complianceandregulatory,andmediaandentertainment.Mr

ZhuhasextensiveexperienceinassistingavarietyofmultinationalcompaniesandmajorChinesecompanieswithstructuringandnegotiatingcross-bordertransactions,suchasforeigndirectinvestment(includinginboundintoandoutboundfromChina),JVsandVC/PEinvestments.HeroutinelyadvisesmultinationalcompaniesandmajorChinesecompaniesonavarietyofcomplianceandregulatorymatters,includinganti-corruption(eg,FCPAandPRCanti-briberylaws)andtheWorldBankSanctionSystem.

JennyChenisanofcounselatGlobalLawOffice,basedinShanghai,mainlyfocusingherpracticeoncompliance,governmentinvestigations,internalinvestigationsanddata

security.MsCheniswellversedinconductinginvestigationsintoanti-corruption,theFCPA,datafalsification,financialfrauds,occupationalembezzlement,self-dealingandtradesecrets,fromChineseandrelevantforeign-lawperspectives.Shehasextensiveexperienceincybersecurityanddatacompliance,assistingnumerouslargeenterprisesinidentifyingandrespondingtopotentialcybersecurityrisksandincidents,andestablishingdatacompliancemanagementsystemsandstructures.Shehashandledmultiplelarge-scaleprojectsine-discovery,cross-borderdataprotectionandsecurity,andsensitiveinformationreview,providingsophisticatedandcomprehensivecompliancesolutionstoclients.

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GlobalLawOffice

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1.LegalFrameworkforOffences

1.1InternationalConventions

InDecember2000,theChinesegovernmentsignedtheUnitedNationsConventionagainstTransnationalOrganizedCrime(the“Conven-tion”),whichtookeffectinChinaon13Octo-ber2003.WhiletheConventionisuniversallyapplicabletoalltransnationalorganisedcrimes,corruptionisoneofitsmainfocuses,requiringstatestotakemeasuresthroughlegislationandenforcementtopromoteanti-corruption.

AsfortheinternationalconventionsspeciallyregulatingcorruptionthatChinahassignedupto,theUnitedNationsConventionagainstCorruption(the“Anti-corruptionConvention”)officiallytookeffectinChinaon12February2006.Chinawasactivelyinvolvedintheforma-tionstageoftheAnti-corruptionConventionandwasamongthefirstcountriestoratifyit,exceptforonereservationonparagraph2ofArticle66regardingadisputesettlementchan-nel.TheAnti-corruptionConventionisthefirstandonlylegallybindinguniversalanti-corruptioninstrumentwiththeframeworkestablishedonfivepillars:PreventiveMeasures,Criminalisation

andLawEnforcement,InternationalCo-opera-tion,AssetRecovery,andTechnicalAssistanceandInformationExchange.TenyearsonfromChina’sratificationoftheAnti-corruptionCon-vention,in2016,theUnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrimeissuedastatusreviewreportonChina’simplementationoftheAnti-corruptionConvention,andChina’seffortsinanddedica-tiontocombatingcorruptionthroughactivelawenforcement,successiveinternationalco-oper-ationandsustainablegoodpracticeshavebeenwellrecognised.

1.2NationalLegislation

Thereiscurrentlynoindependentandconsoli-datedstatuteinChinathatissimilarto,forexam-ple,theUSForeignCorruptPracticesAct(FCPA)ortheUKBriberyAct.BriberyandcorruptioninChinaaregovernedbymultipleauthoritiesinaccordancewithvariouslawsandlegislation.

Thelegalframeworkcanbedividedintothreelevels,dependingontheseverityoftheoffenc-esandtheidentityoftheindividualsinvolved.Firstly,theAnti-UnfairCompetitionLaw(AUCL)andotherlawsandregulationsinthecivil,administrativeandeconomicspheresarethe

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foundationsforthewidespreadadministrativeenforcementagainstcommercialbriberyinChi-na.Secondly,theCriminalLawandthecorre-spondinglegislativeandjudicialinterpretations,suchastheInterpretationoftheSupremePeo-ple’sCourtandtheSupremePeople’sProcura-torateonSeveralIssuesconcerningtheAppli-cationofLawinHandlingofCriminalCasesofEmbezzlementandBriberyandtheCircularoftheSupremePeople’sCourtandtheSupremePeople’sProcuratorateonIssuingOpinionsonIssuesconcerningtheApplicationofLawinHandlingofCriminalCasesofCommercialBriberies,stipulatecriminalviolationsandcrimi-naloffences.Thirdly,therearedisciplinesandregulationspromulgatedbytheCentralCom-mitteeoftheCommunistPartyofChina(CPC)whicharebindingonallCPCmembersandsetamuchlowerthresholdfortheconstitutionofcorruption-relatedviolations.

1.3GuidelinesfortheInterpretationandEnforcementofNationalLegislation

Therearenoofficialguidelinesontheinterpre-tationandenforcementofanti-corruptionlawsinChina.

Supervisoryauthoritiesinvariousindustriespublishcertainnoticesandworkingplansforenforcementactions.

1.4RecentKeyAmendmentstoNationalLegislation

Fromtheadministrativeperspective,themostsignificantchangeinthepastfewyearsispos-siblytherevisionoftheAUCLthatcameintoeffecton1January2018.Ingeneral,therevisiontotheAUCLhasincreasedthemaximumfineforcommercialbriberyfromCNY200,000toCNY3millionandspecifiedtheconstitutiveelementsofcommercialbribery.On22November2022,theChinaStateAdministrationforMarketRegula-

tion(SAMR)proposedanAUCLrevisionforcon-sultationbyaddingtransactioncounterpartiesattheentitylevelasthereceiversofbribery,reflect-ingastricterattitudeagainstcommercialbribery.

Fromthecriminalperspective,DraftAmendmentXIItotheCriminalLaw(“DraftAmendmentXII”)underwentareviewbytheStandingCommitteeoftheNationalPeople’sCongressinJuly2023.AspertheprovisionsoutlinedinDraftAmend-mentXII,variousaspectsofbribery,includingrepeatedinstances,significantsums,briberyofstateofficials,andbriberylinkedtovitalnation-alinitiativesandkeyprojects,willleadtomoreseverepenalties.Moreover,itwillincreasethepunitivemeasuresbothforcorporateentitiesengaginginbriberyandforindividualsprovidingbribestosuchentities.Theserevisionssignifyarigorouscommitmenttocombatandpenalisecorruptionandbribery-relatedoffencesthroughlegislativeimprovements.

Inaddition,ChinaenactedtheInternationalCriminalJusticeAssistanceLaw(ICJAL)inOcto-ber2018.Article4oftheICJALexpresslypro-hibitsinstitutions,organisationsandindividualsinChinafromprovidingevidencematerialsandassistanceasprovidedforinthislawtoforeigncountrieswithouttheconsentofChina’scompe-tentauthorities.Moreover,theICJALappliestoavarietyofactivitiesincriminalproceedings.Thishashadasignificantimpactoncommoninternalinvestigationsconductedwithincompaniesforforeignlawconsiderations,suchasthoseinvolv-ingtheFCPA.

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ClassificationandConstituent

Elements

2.1Bribery

DefinitionofaBribe

Thecurrentadministrativelawandcriminallawhavedifferentdefinitionsofbribery,andthecon-notationofbriberyvariesfromcriminallawandadministrativelawperspectives.

Fromthecriminallawperspective,thereareatotaloftencrimesrelatingtobribery,whichgen-erallyforbidtheactofofferingabribetoanystatefunctionaryandnon-statefunctionary,andthereceivingofthatbribebyanystatefunction-aryornon-statefunctionary.Forexample,anystatefunctionarywhoextortspropertyfromoth-ersbytakingadvantageofhisorherpositionorillegallyacceptsothers’propertyinreturnforsecuringbenefitsforthemshallbeconvictedofacceptanceofbribes.

Fromtheadministrativelawperspective,inabroadsense,briberyreferstoofferingortak-ingmoneyorgoodsandotheractsconductedforthepurposeofofferingorobtainingtradingopportunitiesorothereconomicbenefits,invio-lationofthefaircompetitionprinciple.

PublicOfficial

Thelawdistinguishesbetweenthebriberyofapublicofficialandbriberyofanordinaryindi-vidual.Thereisaspecifictermforapublicoffi-cialinChina,whichis“statefunctionary”,whichmeanspersonswhoperformapublicserviceinstateorgans,state-ownedenterprisesandinsti-tutions,andotherpersonswhoperformapub-licserviceaccordingtolaw.TheCriminalLawdefinestheboundarybetweencrimesrelatingtothebriberyofastatefunctionaryandthebrib-eryofanordinaryindividual,andalsostipulatesdifferentcrimes,dependingontheinvolvement

ofdutyorinfluenceofthestatefunctionary.Forexample,anindividualofferingbribestoastatefunctionarywillbeconvictedofthecrimeofofferingbribestoastatefunctionary,andwillbesubjecttocriminalliabilitiesofuptolifetimeimprisonment,alongwithconfiscationofprop-erty.Withrespecttotheactofofferingbribestoanexecutiveinaprivateentity,itwillconstitutethecrimeofofferingbribestoanon-statefunc-tionary,andwillbesubjecttocriminalliabilitiesrangingfromcriminaldetention(alesspunitiveformofimprisonment,involvingincarcerationatapolicestationforuptosixmonthswithocca-sionalhomevisits)toimprisonmentofuptotenyears,alongwithamonetaryfinewheretheamountofthebribesislarge.

BriberyofForeignPublicOfficials

Further,accordingtotheCriminalLaw,anyonegivinganypropertytoafunctionaryofaforeigncountryoranofficialofaninternationalpublicorganisationforanyimpropercommercialben-efitwillbeconvictedofthecrimeofbriberyofforeignpublicofficialsandinternationalpub-licorganisationofficials,andwillbesubjecttoimprisonmentofuptotenyearsandamonetaryfine.

HospitalityExpenditures,GiftsandPromotionalExpenditures,andFacilitationPayments

Hospitalityandpromotionalexpenditureswouldnotnecessarilyconstitutebriberyiftheywereincurredinordinarybusinesscircumstances,suchasmaintainingaclientrelationshiporpro-motingproductsandservices,andarereason-ableinscopeandaccuratelyrecordedinthebooksandrecords.

Forgifts,smalladvertisinggiftswithavalueoflessthanCNY200arepermittedunderthePro-visionalRegulationsontheProhibitionofCom-

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mercialBriberyandaregenerallypermittedbytheenforcementauthoritiesinpractice.

Thereisnoofficialdefinitionforfacilitationpay-mentsinChina.Inpractice,anypaymentthatismadeinexchangeforillegalbusinessopportuni-ties,advantagesorotherinterestscouldpoten-tiallybedeemedasbribery.

2.2Influence-Peddling

Fromacriminallawperspective,withrespecttoinfluence-peddlingpractices,therearesev-eralcrimesstipulatedintheCriminalLaw,theconvictionforwhichneedstotakevariouscon-siderationsintoaccount,suchaswhetherthepersonconductingtheinfluence-peddlingisastateornon-statefunctionaryoranypersonwhohasacloserelationshipwiththestatefunction-ary,andthespecificmanifestationsoftheinflu-enceondecision-making.Forexample,anyofthecloserelativesofthestatefunctionary,orotherpersonscloselyrelatedtothatstatefunc-tionary,whosecureillegitimatebenefitsforanentrustingpersonthroughthatstatefunction-ary’sperformanceofhisorherdutiesorthroughanotherstatefunctionary’sperformanceofhisorherdutiesbytakingadvantageofthatstatefunctionary’sfunctions,powersorposition,andextortfromtheentrustingpersonoraccepttheentrustingperson’smoneyorproperty,shallbeconvictedofthecrimeofacceptingbribesviainfluence.Anyonewho,forthepurposeofsecur-ingillegitimatebenefits,offersbribestoanyofthecloserelativesofthestatefunctionaryorotherpersonscloselyrelatedtothatstatefunc-tionary,oranystatefunctionarieswhohavebeenremovedfromtheirpositions,theircloserela-tives,orotherpersonscloselyrelatedtothem,shallbeconvictedofthecrimeofofferingbribestopersonswithinfluence.

Fromtheadministrative-lawperspective,influ-ence-peddlingisprohibitedbecauseitiscate-gorisedasaformofcommercialbriberyinviola-tionofthefair-competitionprinciple.AbusinessoperatorbribingorganisationsorindividualswhotakeadvantageoftheirfunctionalauthorityorinfluencetoimpactatransactionmayfaceafineofuptoCNY3million,confiscationofille-galgains,andrevocationofitsbusinesslicencewherecircumstancesaresevere.

2.3FinancialRecord-Keeping

InaccurateCorporateBooksandRecordsWithrespecttoinaccuratecorporaterecords,theCriminalLawstipulatesmultipledifferentcrimes.Forexample,anyonewhoconcealsorintention-allydestroysaccountbooksorfinancialreportsthatarerequiredtobekeptinaccordancewiththelaw,ifthecircumstancesaresevere(eg,themoneyinvolvedismorethanCNY500,000),shallbesentencedtofixed-termimprisonmentofuptofiveyearsand,concurrentlyorseparately,afineofuptoCNY200,000.Entitiescommittingtheaforesaidcrimeshallalsobefined,withthedirectlyaccountablepersonsbeingpunished.Moreover,if,duringtheprocessofitsliquida-tion,anenterpriserecordsfalseinformationinitsbalancesheetorinventoryofassets,caus-ingseriousharmtotheinterestofthecreditors(eg,causingeconomiclossesofmorethanCNY500,000),thatenterpriseshallbeconvictedofthecrimeofimpairingliquidationandshallhaveafineofuptoCNY200,000imposed,withitsdirectlyaccountablepersonstobesentencedtofixed-termimprisonmentofuptofiveyears.Itshouldbenotedthattheaforementionedcrimesdonotnecessarilyrelatetocorruption,andareseparatelyandindependentlystipulatedundertheCriminalLaw.

Fromtheperspectiveofadministrativelaw,com-paniesforgingortamperingwithaccountingdoc-

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uments,accountbooksandotheraccountingmaterials,orprovidingfalsefinancialaccountingreports,shallbecriticisedbyanoticeandmayhaveafineofuptoCNY100,000imposed,withtheirdirectlyaccountablepersonssubjecttoafineofuptoCNY50,000.Likewise,theforegoinglegalliabilitiesexistindependentlyandarenotnecessarilyinvolvedwithactsofcorruption.Inaddition,inaccordancewiththeAUCL,whereabusinessoperatorgivesadiscounttoitstrans-actioncounterpartyorpaysacommissiontoamiddleman,itshalltruthfullyrecordthatdiscountandcommissioninitsaccountbooks.Thesamerequirementsalsoapplytothecounterpartyormiddlemanreceivingthediscountorcommis-sion.

DisseminatingFalseInformation

Inrespectoftheoffencesoffalseinformationdissemination,fromthecriminallawperspec-tive,whoeverfabricatesandspreadsfalseinformationthatadverselyaffectssecuritiesorfuturestrading,thusdisruptingthesecuritiesorfuturestradingmarket,iftheconsequencesaresevere(eg,lossescausedtoinvestorsexceed-ingCNY50,000),shallbesentencedtofixed-termimprisonmentandshallhaveafineofuptoCNY100,000imposed.

Fromtheperspectiveofadministrativelaw,thelegalliabilitiesrelatingtothedisseminationoffalseinformationaremainlyregulatedintheSecuritiesLaw.Specifically,makinguseoffalseoruncertainsignificantinformationtoinduceinvestorsintosecuritiestradingisstrictlypro-hibitedasamarket-manipulatingpractice,andtheviolatorshallbeorderedtodisposeoftheillegallyheldsecuritiespursuanttothelaw,withillegalgainsconfiscatedandafineimposed.Inthecasethattheaforesaidviolatorisacompanyorotherorganisation,thedirectlyaccountablepersonsshallreceiveawarningandshallhavea

fineofuptoCNY5millionimposedconcurrent-ly.Inaddition,anyonedisseminatingfraudulentinformationtodisrupttheorderofthesecuri-tiesmarketissubjecttolegalpenaltiessuchasimpositionofafineandconcurrentconfiscationofillegalgains.

2.4PublicOfficials

Misappropriationofpublicfundsbyanystatefunctionaryasaresultoftakingadvantageofhisorherpositionwouldresultinthatstatefunction-arybeingconvictedofthecrimeofmisappro-priationofpublicfunds.Thecrimeofmisappro-priationofpublicfundscontainsthreespecificcategories–ie,(i)misappropriationofpublicfundsforthestatefunctionary’sownuseorforconductingillegalactivities,(ii)misappropriat-ingarelativelylargeamountofpublicfundsforprofit-makingactivities,and(iii)misappropriatingarelativelylargeamountofpublicfundswithoutreturningitafterthelapseofthreemonths.Thestatefunctionaryinquestionwhoisconvictedofthecrimeshallbesentencedtoimprisonmentofuptoatermoflife.Wheretheaforesaidmis-appropriatedfundsormaterialswereallocatedforsignificantpublicpurposes,suchasdisasterrelief,emergencyrescue,floodpreventionandcontrol,specialcarefordisabledservicemenandwomenandthefamiliesofrevolutionarymartyrsandservicemenandwomen,aidtothepoor,migrationorsocialrelief,thecriminalshallbegivenaheavierpunishment.

InaccordancewiththeCriminalLaw,anystatefunctionarywhoextortsoracceptsmoneyorpropertyfromanotherpersonbytakingadvan-tageofhisorherpositioninordertoseekben-efitsforthatperson,orbyillegallyacceptingrebatesorservicechargesofvariousdescrip-tions,shallbeconvictedofacceptingbribes.

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InaccordancewiththeCriminalLaw,anystatefunctionarywhounlawfullytakespublicprop-ertyintohisorherpossessionbyembezzle-ment,theft,fraudoranyothermeans,bytak-ingadvantageofhisorherposition,shallbeconvictedofcorruption;and,wheretheamountinvolvedisextremelyhuge(overCNY3million)andextremelyseverelossesarecausedtotheinterestsofthestateandthepeople,themaxi-mumpunishmentshallbethedeathpenalty.

UndertheCriminalLaw,favouritismisanaggra-vatingfactor(butnotanindependentcrime)whenstatefunctionariescommitthecrimeofabusingpowerorthecrimeofnegligenceofduty.Thecrimeofabusingpowerreferstostatefunctionariestakingdecisionsonandhandlingmattersbeyondtheirauthorityinviolationofthelaw,andthecrimeofnegligenceofdutyreferstonegligenceofdutybystatefunctionarieswhoareseriouslyirresponsibleandfailtoperformorfailtoconscientiouslyperformtheirduties.Statefunctionarieswhocommitthecrimeofabusingpowerorthecrimeofnegligenceofduty,therebycausingheavylossestotheinterestsofthestateandthepeople,couldbesentencedtofixed-termimprisonmentofuptosevenyears.Withtheaggravatingfactoroffavouritism,thetermofimprisonmentcouldbeuptotenyears.Inaddi-tion,theCriminalLawstipulatesseveralcrimescommittedbystatefunctionariesinspecificgov-ernmentfunctionsthroughpractisingfavourit-ism,suchasthecrimeoffailingtocollectorcol-lectinginsufficienttaxbypractisingfavouritism.

2.5Intermediaries

Withrespecttothecommissionofbriberythroughanintermediary,dependingontheiden-tityoftheintermediaryandhowtheintermedi-aryworks,theCriminalLawgenerallystipulatesthefollowingthreekindsofcrimes:(i)thecrimeofmediatorybribery,(ii)thecrimeofaccepting

bribesbyusinginfluence,and(iii)thecrimeofintroducingbribes.

Thecrimeofmediatorybriberyisasubcategoryofthecrimeofacceptingbribery,anditskeycharacteristicisthat,whenconductingthecrimeofmediatorybribery,thestatefunctionary,bytakingadvantageofhisorherownpowersorposition,securesillegitimatebenefitsforanentrustingpersonthroughanotherstatefunc-tionary’sperformanceofduties(insteadofhisorherownperformanceofduties).Inthisregard,itshouldbenotedthatthestatefunctionarywhoseperformanceofdutieshasbeentakenadvan-tageofshouldnotbeawareoftheexistenceofbribery,otherwiseheorshewouldalsobeconvictedofthecrime.

Thecrimeofacceptingbriberybyusinginflu-enceisanindependentcrime,thekeycharac-teristicofwhichisthatthepersonacceptingthebriberyisnotastatefunctionarybutthestatefunctionary’scloserelativeoranyotherpersonwhohasacloserelationshipwiththatstatefunc-tionary.Asapersonwhoha