Part two Formal Language and Informal Language

1、Part two2.1 Formal LanguageAlthough English does not have a strong set of rules for formal language, speakers need to be careful how they speak in different situations. Formal language is often used in official public notices, business situations, and polite conversations with strangers. Formal lang

2、uage has stricter grammar rules and often uses more difficult vocabulary. For example,He is going to the dance tonight. NOT Hes going to the dance tonight. (no contractions)George has received the letter. NOT George received the letter. (use the present perfect more often)She wore the hat that I gav

3、e her. NOT She wore the hat I gave her. (keep the relative pronoun that)Do you want to go to the park? NOT You want to go to the park? (do not delete words)Vocabulary is often a little different as well.Please refrain from smoking. (formal)Please don't smoke. (informal)You must adhere to these g

4、uidelines. (formal)You must follow these guidelines. (informal)2.2 Informal LanguageEnglish is often spoken informally especially in the States, Canada, and Australia. Informal language is all right for friends, co-workers, host family, or service staff (at a restaurant for example). Informal langua

5、ge has less strict grammar rules and often has shortened sentences. For example,Ywanna go to the dance tonight? NOT Do you want to go to the dance tonight?I dunno NOT I dont know.I cant speak English.  NOT I can not speak English.Vocabulary is often different as well.That sucks. (informal)That

6、is too bad. (formal)Thats legit/sweet/awesome. (informal)That is great. (formal)2.3 Hints for choosing more formal wordsIn academic writing you should aim to be succinct, thus: 1. When picking a word, choose the most relevant and specific one for the point you wish to make; for example: (match the c

7、olors across the examples to see the alternative words)Informal Formal Lots of job loss is just one thing resulting from automation.Widespread unemployment is one consequence of automation.The common owl is active at night.The common owl is nocturnal.2. Also try to use the most formal way of express

8、ing your point (this may mean you use a more technical word); for example: job loss unemploymentT.V.televisionworkers employeesthe same as equivalentHINT: although you aim to use more formal words in academic writing, you should not aim to obscure your meaning behind a lot of impressive words. Ultim

9、ately you should try to achieve succinct, clear prose.2a. Avoid using phrasal verbs such as 'get up', 'put into', 'find out' that are often used in spoken English. Replace these verbs with more formal single verbs such as 'rise', 'contribute' and 'discover

10、' for example: Informal Formal Researchers looked at the way strain builds up round a geological fault.Researchers examined the way strain intensifies around a geological fault.Technology companies got together with stockbroking firms in order to dominate internet trading.Technology companies me

11、rged with stockbroking firms in order to dominate internet trading.3. Make sure the description you provide is as specific as possible. Look at the color coded words and phrases to see the differences in word choice in the following examples. The exactness of the description has been increased by in

12、cluding more specific adjective (fiscal) as well as additional descriptive words (highlighted); for example:  Informal Formal The government has made progress in economic policy.The Australian Government has made considerable progress in implementing fiscal policy nationwide.(1). A specific des

13、cription means you also need to avoid using unsophisticated adjectives such as 'good', 'bad', 'big', 'little' for example: Informal Formal One of the bad aspects of chemotherapy is the side effects.One of the negative aspects of multi-drug chemotherapy is the uncomfor

14、table side-effects. (2). Also avoid using adverbs such as 'really', 'very', 'just' for example: Informal/ Spoken Formal It caused a really big reaction.It caused a considerable reaction.It caused a dramatic reaction.It caused an explosive reaction.Notice that in the previous

15、three examples, a more comprehensive description has been achieved because unsophisticated and non-specific words have been replaced with more formal descriptive words.2.4 Formal and Informal Words Different words and expressions are appropriate for different occasions. Just as you would not wear cu

16、t-offs to a wedding, you would not describe a literary figure as "the pits" in a paper; to do this would be inappropriately informal. If you are unsure of the audience and purpose of your writing, maintain a general level of usage. If you know the audience and purpose, then adapt your usag

17、e to the context. Keep in mind, however, that words that are either too formal or too casual tend to draw attention to themselves and thus should serve some constructive purpose when used. If you are writing a letter of application, you might end by using words such as the following: If you have any

18、 questions, please do not hesitate to call. You would not write a sentence such as this one: It would be cool if you'd give me a buzz. Similarly, in a history paper, the following would be inappropriate: General Lee was a regular kind of guy. Instead, you might write this: · General Lee was

19、 an unassuming kind of leader, one who mixed easily with his troops. The words regular kind of guy are too casual for the purpose of this assignment; The words unassuming kind of leader state the same idea in more appropriate words. Consider the circumstances in which you might use each of the follo

20、wing words or phrases: FORMALINFORMALcelebrationpartymomentousimportantdeceaseddeadpositionjobwish towould like toonerousdifficultbeneficentgenerousmisfortunebad luckUse appropriate punctuation. For example, American English employs a colon in a formal letter as in “Dear John:” but British English e

21、mploys a comma. Limit parentheses, exclamation points, and dashes (prefer colons) in formal writing. Avoid the ampersand (&); write out the word “and.” Punctuate your writing as you go along to reduce your risk of leaving out punctuation. Avoid common colloquial words and expressions (colloquial

22、isms), such as "cute" (use "adorable"), "yeah," "how-do-you-do," and "movie" (use "film"), as listed below or labeled as such in your dictionary.Avoid common colloquial words and expressions (colloquialisms), such as "cute" (use &

23、quot;adorable"), "yeah," "how-do-you-do," and "movie" (use "film"), as listed below or labeled as such in your dictionary. This includes slang such as "cool," "dude," and "humongous." Two good phrases to delete are "you

24、know" and “you might be thinking.” You do not have the power to know your readers thoughts while they read your paper. Another empty sentence is “Think about it.” Assume that your readers are already thinking about what they are reading, and state your point more clearly. The adverb “pretty,” m

25、eaning “relatively," "fairly," or "quite,” is unacceptable in all formal writing and is often unnecessary. Do not use contractions. Note that the full form of "can't" is one word: "cannot," not "can not." Try to avoid the first and second person.

26、 Formal writing often tries to be objective, and the pronouns "I" and "you" tend to imply subjectivity. Phrases such as "I think that" can be deleted from a sentence when it is obvious that this is the authors opinion. Using the pronoun "I" is almost always ac

27、ceptable in personal writing, and the pronoun "you" is almost always acceptable in letters and how-tos. In the most formal writing, the pronoun “I” is replaced by the pronoun “we”; this is known as the royal we or the editorial we. Formal writing generally avoids the pronoun “you” when it

28、refers to people in general.You should sleep eight hours each night. (informal) One should sleep eight hours each night. (formal) Most people should sleep at least eight hours each night. (formal usage allowing for exceptions) Do not hesitate to split an infinitive when it is warranted. Split infini

29、tives are common in legal writing, an important type of formal English. In fact, the split infinitive is encountered in the most formal of writing. Split infinitives can be used even in very formal writing that avoids the active voice. Infinitives, along with gerunds, contribute to an active writing

30、 style and show action but are not actually in the active voice. Voice is a property of clauses, and infinitives and gerunds form phrases. Split infinitives are grammatically correct. The split-infinitive rule is based on Latin, but split infinitives actually make writing more like Latin, not less s

31、o. The Romans tended to place adverbs right next to verbs, and adverbs usually preceded verbs. In formal writing, adverbs also tend to precede verbs rather than follow them. In Latin, Captain Kirk would have said “audacter ire” (translated as “boldly to go” or “to boldly go”). Oxford dictionary says

32、 that “boldly to go” is more formal than “to go boldly”; that is most likely because of the Latin word order. The effectiveness of the split infinitive arises from the fact that “to” and the verb are like a single unit. After all, “to go” would be translated into Latin as the single word “ire.” For

33、emphasis, an artist places a large picture between two smaller pictures; in the same way, an adverb becomes emphatic when placed between "to" and the verb.Do not be afraid to separate the auxiliary (helping) verb and the main verb. Know when to end a sentence with a preposition (even in th

34、e most formal of English). Always include the relative pronoun. In formal English, you should be sure to always include "whom" or "which" even when they are not essential to your meaning. The relative pronoun can be omitted when only a participle is used; in that case, there is n

35、o longer a relative clause. Also, avoid using 'that' as a relative pronoun and replace it with 'which', 'whom' or 'who'. This is the paper I wrote. (informal) This is the paper which I wrote. (formal) That was the paper written by me. (formal) (This version uses the p

36、ast participle and does not contain a relative clause. It is the most formal version because it does not contain any verbs in the active voice.) The bear which was dancing was graceful. (formal) The bear dancing was graceful. (more formal) (“Dancing” is not active; it is not even a verb and is actua

37、lly an adjective; this becomes clearer when the sentence is rewritten as “The dancing bear was graceful.”) Do not start a sentence with a coordinating conjunction. In the written language, do not use coordinating conjunctions such as "and,” "but," “so,” or “or” to start a sentence. Co

38、ordinating conjunctions are meant to join words, phrases, and clauses; a coordinating conjunction is left dangling without a role to play when it comes at the beginning of a sentence. Consider attaching the sentence that starts with a coordinating conjunction to the previous sentence, substituting t

39、he period for a comma to produce a compound sentence. You can also use transitional adverbs such as “additionally” (or “moreover”), “nevertheless” (or “however”), “therefore” (or “thus”), and “alternatively” (or “instead” or “otherwise”). “Though” can be used at the end of a sentence: “This product

40、here is much cheaper. It will last only half as long, though.” Starting a sentence with “also” is useful in casual writing but should be avoided in formal English unless the word "also" is modifying a verb (usually in the imperative mood or an inverted sentence structure): "Also read

41、Chapters Two and Three;" "Also included is a free ticket." A paragraph that starts many sentences with coordinating conjunctions may also lack smooth transitions. Develop short, choppy sentences into longer, more graceful sentences. Formal writing generally uses longer sentences: comp

42、ound, complex, and compound-complex sentences. You can develop two or more simple sentences into one of the previously listed sentence structures. Long sentences add variety to your writing and can be particularly effective when paired with short sentences; the contrast grabs the readers' attent

43、ion. As the last sentence shows, you also can use a semicolon to join two simple sentences, provided that they are closely related to each other. Avoid clichés to be formal. Formal writing tries to use literal language that will not be misunderstood by any of the readers. Clichés can make

44、your writing unoriginal, but they can sometimes be fun in casual writing, especially as an original play-on-words called an anti-cliché. Here are some clichés to avoid in formal writing: Hercules was as strong as an ox. I have to give an arm and a leg to find a parking spot during the holi

45、day season. It was as pretty as a picture. Avoid stage directions. Do not commence a letter by telling the recipient what you plan to do in the letter or begin an essay by telling the reader what the paper will discuss. "I am writing to you to ask you to. . . ." "This paper is going t

46、o talk about how. . . ." Avoid vague words. Vague words are less formal and are open to interpretation; they do not express your ideas as well as more precise words would. "A few" or "enough" can often be replaced by something more precise. Anybody, anyone "Anyone"

47、 and its variants are more formal than "anybody" and its variants. I didn't see anybody. I saw no one. As “As” is often utilized in formal writing to mean “because.” Placing a comma before “as” can help prevent ambiguity when it could also be understood to mean “when” or “where.” Big,

48、large, great All three of these words are acceptable in formal English, but "large" is more formal than "big," and "great" is more formal than "large." Fellow Avoid using "fellow" when you mean "a person." Calling someone a fellow is more f

49、ormal than calling him or her a dude, but "fellow" is still a colloquialism. For sure Replace "for sure" with "with certainty" in formal writing, as in "I know with certainty." You might also write, "I am positive" or "I am sure." Get Avoid

50、 all forms of this verb in formal writing. o I got an A in the course. o I received an A in the course. o She didnt get the joke. o She did not understand the joke. o The machine never gets used. o The machine is never used. Got "Got" is a colloquialism. Replace it with "have," a

51、s in "Do you have not "got" an extra pen?" Introduce, present "Present" is more formal than "introduce." It is also more respectful to the person presented. o The queen was introduced. . . . o The queen was presented. . . . Kind of, sort of "Kind of"

52、 and "sort of" are unacceptable in formal writing when used for "somewhat" and "rather." When used to categorize something, "kind of" and "sort of" are acceptable, but "type of" is more formal: "The parakeet is a type of bird." No

53、te that it is informal to include an article after "of": "The parakeet is a type of a bird." Let When used in place of "allow" or "permit," "let" is a colloquialism. Madam, maam Both "madam" and "maam" are very polite forms of add

54、ress . . . but "maam" is unacceptable in formal English. In fact, "maam" is much more informal than other contractions such as "Im" and "Ill," which go unmarked in dictionaries. Most In formal English, do not use "most" for "almost." You should write, "Almost everyone likes pizza," not "Most everyone likes pizza." On the other hand "On the other hand" is a very commo