英美文化基礎(chǔ)講義英文版

LecturesonEssentialsof

BritishandAmerican

Culture

Compliedby

GuWeidong

Contents

Lecture1WhoseBritain?

Lecture2EnglishHistory

Lecture3EnglishLanguage

Lecture4BritishGovernment

Lecture5EnglishLiterature

Lecture6EnglishEducation

Lecture7EnglishReligion

Lecture8TheSpiritoftheBritishPeople

Lecture9WhoareAmericans?

Lecture10AmericansHistory

Lecture11AmericanGovernment

Lecture12AmericanLiterature

Lecture13AmericanEducation

Lecture14AmericanReligion

Lecture15AmericanFamilyLife

Lecture16TheAmericanCharacter

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Lecture1

WhoseBritain?

AlthoughtheUnitedKingdomcoveredonlyasmallareaoftheearth

surface(243,610sq.km.),itrepresentspeopleofmanydifferentorigins

andcultures.YetallofthemareBritish.Indeed,itwouldbedifficultto

findanyoneinmodemBritainwhocouldsaywithcertainlythathis

ancestorshadnotcometotheBritishIslesfromsomewhereelse.Who,

then,aretoday'sBritonsandwhatkindofpeoplearethey?

ThehistoryofhumanhabitationandsettlementinBritaingoesback

totheStoneAgehuntersandgatherers,whoarrivedfromtheEuropean

continentabout10,000yearsago.TheNeolithicpeoplewhofollowed

themweresettledagriculturalistswhokeptdomesticanimalsandhowto

makesimplepottery.Around2000BCtheseStoneAgepeoplestartedto

erecthugemonuments,orhenges,ofgiantrockslabs,possiblyfor

religiouspurposes.Workonthehengescontinuedintermittentlyintothe

BronzeAge,untilabout1500BC.Themostimposingandmysteriousof

theseancientmonumentsisStonehengeonwindsweptSalisburyplainin

southwestEngland.

Easycommunicationbetweentheislandsandthecontinental

mainlandmusthaveexistedand,fromearliesttimes,thisencouraged

migration.BytheendoftheBronzeAge,around700BC,Celticpeople

hadarrivedfromnorth-westernEuropebringingwiththema

revolutionarynewskill:iron-working.Celtscontinuedtocomeandsettle

inBritainforabout500yearsand,bythetimetheRomansfirstlandedin

55BC,theCelticculturewaswellestablished.Theearliestwritten

recordsofBritain'sinhabitationcomefromtheRomanswhoeventually

conqueredthevariousCeltickingdomsthenflourishinginEngland,

WalesandtheScottishLowlands.

1.TheScots

TheScots,particularlytheHighlandersfromthemountainousnorth,

trytomaintaintheirseparateidentity.LikeWelsh,theyobjecttobeing

called“English”.TheirearliestknownancestorswerethePictsandthe

Celts,andGaeliclanguagestillspokeninremoteparts,comesfromthe

ancientlanguageoftheCeltictribes.

TheScottishHighlanderconsidershimselfthe“true"Scotandhe

wearshisnationaldress,thekilt,withpride.Kilts,pleatedskirtsmadeof

materialwithasquared,coloreddesigncalledatartan,probablyderive

fromthecustomoftheRomanconquerors.EachScottishclan(aGaelic

wordfor“tribe“orfamily)hasitsowntartanwithspecificcolorsand

designandonlymembersofthatclanareentitledtowearit.Theseare

tartansforallthefamousScottishnameslikeCampbell,MacLeod,Fraser,

Gordon,StuartandMacdonald('Mac'or'Me',foundinmanyScottish

names,means'sonof').

TheHighlandersareaproud,independentandhardypeoplewho

mainlylivebyfarmingsheepinthemountainousareas;others,onthe

coastsandislands,arefishermen.ButmostScotsareLowlanders,

concentratedinthedensely-populatedtownsandcitiesofsouthern

Scotland.Theseurbanareasareheavilyindustrialized,withcoal-mining,

iron,steel,ship-buildingandtextiles.Sincethemid-1800s,therehasbeen

aconstantflowofyoungmenfromtheHighlandsandcountrydistrictsto

Lowlandindustrialcenterswhereworkopportunitiesaregreater.Inthe

lastfewyears,however,thereversehastakenplace:therehasbeena

migrationoflaborbacktothenorth-easterncoastalareastowell-paid

jobsintheNorthSeaoilindustry.

TheScotshaveareputationforbeinginventive,hardworking,

serious-mindedandcautiouswithmoney.Inthepast,theywerepioneer

settlersandempirebuildersintheplacesofAmerica,Canada,Australia,

SouthAfricaandNewZealand.TheyhavealsoprovidedtheBritish

Armywithsomeofitsmostfamousregiments.Overthecenturies,enemy

troopshaveoftenbeenterrifiedatthesightandsoundofHighlandersin

kiltsmarchingintobattleaccompaniedbytheblood-curdingmusicofthe

bagpipes.SomeevennicknamedtheScottishsolders“devilinSkirts”and

“Ladiesfromhell”.

Sincethe1960'stherehasbeenconsiderableScottishnationalist

agitationforaseparateparliamentorassemblywhichwouldgivethe

Scotsagreatersayintheplanningandrunningoftheirownaffairs.In

response,theBritishgovernmentheldareferenduminScotlandatthe

beginningof1979tofindoutifthepeoplereallywantedtheirown

assembly.Thegovernmentpromisedthatif40percentofScotseligible

tovotedidso,andif60percentormoreofthatvotewasinfavorofa

separateScottishassembly,thensuchaassemblywouldbesetup.But,

resultsshowedlessthan40percentinfavor,sonofurtheractionwas

taken.

ApartfromtheirverydistinctivenationaldresstheScotscanbe

recognizedbytheirparticularstyleofspeechandaccent.Also,their

vocabularycontainsmanywordsandexpressions,oftenofancientorigin,

whichareuniquetoScotland.Rememberthattheylikedtobecalled

“Scots"or“Scottish”andnotuScotch^^.Scotchreferstothemostfamous

ofScottishexports,whisky:theword“Whisky”isderivedfromthe

Gaelicandmeans“wateroflife”.ThehistoryandatmosphereofScotland

aswellasthecharacterofitspeoplehavebeenexpertlyportrayedby

suchfamousScottishwritersasRobertBurns(1759—96),SirWalter

Scott(1771—1782)andRobertLouisStevenson(1850—94).

2.TheWelsh

TheWelshhavebeenunitedwithEnglandsincethe1535Actof

Union,buttheyarestillveryconsciousoftheirseparateCelticheritage.

Althoughthenumberofpeoplewhoactuallyspeak,theWelshlanguage

isdeclining(Only20percentin1980),culturalprideinWalesisvery

strong.TheWelsharefamousfortheirloveofmusicandpoetryandthey

havedevelopedchoralsinginginanationalart.Theyalsohaveagreat

feelingforthemusicofwords:examplesoftheiroutstandingskillwith

languagearefoundinthepoetryofDylanThomas(1914—53)andinthe

politicalspeechesofDavidLloydGeorge(1863—1945).

OfficiallyWelsh(anancientCelticlanguage,butdifferenttoGaelic)

hasequalstatueswithEnglishinWales,butinpracticeitisaminority

language.TheWelshNationalParty,whichhasmembersinthe

Westminsterparliament,togetherwithvariouspressuregroupswantmore

Welshlanguageandcultureinschools,themediaandinthepubliclife

generally.Butinspiteofsuchnationalisttendencies,whenthepeopleof

Walesvotedin1977onthequestionofaseparateWelshassembly,very

fewwereinfavor.So,asinScotland,thematterwasdropped.

TheWelsh,liketheScots,fallintotwogroups:those—mostlysheep

farmers—fromthemountainousregionsofthecenterandnorth;and

those(two-thirdsofpopulation)wholiveandworkinthehighly

industrializedsouthwherecoalminingandsteelmanufacturearethe

maineconomicactivities.Atthebeginningofthiscentury,thesouth

Walescoalsfieldswerenotoriousfortheirlowwagesandappalling

workingandlivingconditions.Butin1946,thecoalindustrywas

nationalized;themineswerethenmodernizedandconditionswere

improved.Today,theminersofSouthWalesareamongthehighest-paid

workersinBritain.

Fromthehard-workinglivesofthepeople,twodifferentpassions

haveemerged:rugbyfootballandchoralsinging.Theoccasionwhenthe

twocometogethermosteffectivelyisanyinternationalrugbymatch

involvingWales.Beforethematchstarts,itistraditionalforcrowdof

Welshsupporterstosing—alwaysinperfectharmony—“LandofMy

Father”,anoldsongthathasalmostbecomeanationalanthemforWales.

EveryyeartherearemanyfestivalsofmusicandverseinWales.The

mostfamousistheNationalEisteddfod(theWelshwordfor“sitting”)

whichtakesplaceseachAugustandlastsforaboutaweek.Thehighlight

oftheEisteddfodisacompetitionforthebestepicpoemaboutWales

writtenandreadinWelsh;thewinneriscrownedBard,consideredthe

supremehonorinWales.

AWelshmancanoftenberecognizedbyhisnames:itmightbe

Jones,Williams,Thomas,Evans,Lloyd,Llewellyn,orbeginwith"P"

likePritchard,ProbertorPryse(therearecontradictionsofApRichard,

ApRobertandApRys;"ap”inWelshforusonof5).TheWelsharealso

easilyidentifiedbythesoftlilting,almostsinging,wayinwhichthey

speakEnglish.Welshlife,attitudeandcharacterhavebeenvividly

illustratedintheworksofsuchwritersasDylanThomas,GwynThomas

(bom1913)andRichardLlewellyn(bom1907).

3.TheIrish

TheIrish,amainlyCelticpeople,havemaintainedtheirancient

GaeliclanguagebutEnglishisspokenbyeveryone.LiketheWelsh,They

havearichliteraryheritagewhichisapparentinloveofwords.Many

greatnamesofEnglishliteraturewere,infact,Irish,orhadanIrish

background,likeJonathanSwift(1667—1745),OscarWilde

(1854—1900)andGeorgeBernardShaw(1856—1950).Writersand

playwrightslikeJohnMillingtonSynge(1880—1964),JamesJoyce

(1882—1941)andSeanO'Casey(1880—1964)havegivendeepinsights

intotheIrishcharacterandportrayedtheirfellowcountrymenas

introspectivedreamersandpoets,aswellasargumentativeand

aggressive—especiallyafteradrinkingsession.

TounderstandthesituationinNorthernIreland(Ulster阿爾斯特)，a

basicknowledgeoftheisland'slongviolenthistoryisessential.The

wholeofIrelandwascolonizedbyEnglandin1169,andfromthattime

onwardstherewereconstantuprisings.Thesituationworsenedinthe

sixteenthcenturywhentheIrishrefusedtoaccepttheProtestant

Reformation:theyremainedstubbornlytruetotheirCatholicfaithdespite

manycruelpersecutionsbytheEnglish.AhundredyearslaterOliver

Cromwell,LordProtectorofBritainaftertheexecutionofKingCharlesI,

crushedvariousrebellionsinIreland,andsettledEnglishandScottish

Protestantstherebygiventhemland.Themaindutyofthenew

immigrantswastoputdownanyanti-BritishrevoltbythenativeIrish.

Eventuallytheseprotestantsettlersbecameapowerfulinthecountry

althoughnumericallytheyformedaminority,excerptinthesixcounties

ofUlster.

Irelandwasthenanagriculturalsociety(andinthemainstillis).The

people'slivelihooddependedonwhattheygrow,whichwasoftentotally

inadequate,andbythemiddleofthenineteenthcenturyfamine

conditionsprevailed.ThedesperatestateofeconomycausedmanyIrish

peopletoimmigrate,particularlytotheUnitedStatesofAmerica.

Between1840and1900theIrishpopulationdroppedfrom8.5millionto

4.5million.Thosewhoremainedsoonbegantodemandsomekindof

autonomyandIrishmembersoftheWestminsterparliament,likeCharles

StewartParnell,calledpersistently“homerule“一controlledinternal

affairsbyanassemblyinDublin.Thehomerulequestionledtoeven

moredisturbanceandriotsastheUlsterProtestants(60percentofthe

populationinthatarea)fearedthatanautonomousIrelandwouldbe

dominatedbyCatholics.

Eventually,in1902,Irelandwaspartitioned.The26countiesof

southernIrelandbecametheIrishFreeState,laterrenamedtheRepublic

ofEire.ThesixcountiesofUlster,intheNorth,remainedpartofthe

UnitedKingdomwiththeirownparliament,Stormont,responsiblefor

internalaffairs.

BetweenthetwoWorldWars,Ulsterdevelopedtoaprosperous

industrialeconomyandmanysouthernIrishmovedtothenorthtofind

jobsandahigherstandardofliving.AftertheSecondWorldWarthe

migrationcontinuedandwithintownsandcitiesspecificCatholic

districtsdeveloped.BecauseofanagreementbetweentheUnited

KingdomandEire,thenewcomerswerenottreatedasforeignersor

aliensandwereentitledtoallthebenefitsoftheBritishWelfareState:

unemploymentpay,familyallowance,freeeducation(including

universityeducation),freemedicaltreatment,retirementpension,etc,;

theseadvantageswerenotavailableinErie.Butdespitethelarge

numbersofCatholicIrishnowinthenorth,theProtestantsmaintainedan

exclusiveholdonallareasoflife.TheUlsterUnionists,theruling

Protestantparty,hadcompletecontrolofStormont,localcouncils,the

policeforceandallpublicservices.Theydidthisbymakingsurethatno

Catholic—nomatterhowwellqualifiedorhowlongresidentin

Ulster-couldobtainajobinanypublicservice;onallapplicationforms,

candidateswererequiredtostatetheirreligion.Also,itisquiteeasyto

distinguishtheCatholicIrishbytheirnames:thosebeginningwith“Mac”

or“Me”likethehighlandScots,orwith“Mui”，“Mil”or"O”asin

Mc-Manamee,Macnamara,Muldoon,Milligan,O'Connorand

O'Sullivan;andalsonamesofCelticoriginlikeFlynn,Connolly,

KennedyandNolan.Protestantnamesareusuallyindistinguishablefrom

thoseoftheEnglishandLowlandScots.

TheCatholiccomplainedofdiscriminationagainstthemin

employment,education,housingandvotingrights.On12August1969,

theresentmentcausedbythislackofcivilrightsflaredintoviolenceon

thestreetsofBelfastandLondonderry.Thedate,12August,was

significant.EachyearonthatdayProtestantscommemoratetheBattleof

theBoynein1690whentheProtestantKingWilliamIII(Williamof

Orange)crushedaCatholicrebellioninLondonderry.TheOrangeDay

celebrations—noseymemberswithdrumsbeatingandflagswavingand

theProtestantmarcherswearingthecolorsofthe“OrangeOrder“一were

alwaysaggressivelyprovocativeandin1969fightingbrokeoutbetween

ProtestantmarchersandCatholicbystanders.Actsofviolencehave

continuedonbothsideseversince,althoughreformshavenowbeen

introduced.

ViolenceontheCatholicsideisencouragedandcarriedoutbythe

IrishRepublicanArmy(IRA)withitterroristwing,theProvisionalIRA.

TheIRA,illegalinbothEireandUlster,isfanaticallydedicatedtothe

unificationofallIrelandasonecountryunderonegovernment;Ulster,of

course,wouldbelongtothenewIrelandandnolongerbeapartofthe

UnitedKingdom.Todrawattentiontheircause,todestroyexistingsocial

andpoliticalstructuresandbreakdownlawandorder,theIraactivists

launchedacampaigninofsavageshootings,brutalmurdersand

indiscriminatebombingsinNorthernIreland.FromtimetotimeIRA

violence—mostlybombs—hasspreadtootherpartsofBritain,

particularlyLondon.

Fortheirpart,theUlsterUnionists,orLoyalists,areequallyfanatical.

TheyinsisttheyremainpartofBritainandrefusetoacceptanyreform

thatmightmakewayforCatholicparticipantsinpoliticalandpubliclife

intheprovince.Loyalistextremists,partlyinretaliationforIRAbrutality

andpartlytoemphasizetheirdemands,alsocarryoutmurdersandother

activities.

Inthemeantime,responsibilityforNorthernIrelandlieswiththe

centralgovernmentinWestminster(Stormontwasdissolvedin1972

becauseofthecrisissituation)andBritishtroopspatrolthestreetof

Ulster,tryingtokeepthehostilepopulationapartyetbecomingtargetsfor

bulletsandbombsthemselves.

Tragically,violenceandterrorismarestillpartofdailylifeinUlster.

TheWestminstergovernmentcontinuestosearchforwaysinwhichthe

peopleofNorthernIrelandcanco-operatetobringpeaceand

reconstructiontotheirland.ManyCatholicssupporttheideaofunion

withtheIrishRepublic,butmanyothersarejustasadamantasthe

ProtestantsthatUlstershouldremainpartoftheUnitedKingdom,

providedthattheyaregrantedfullcivilrightsandthatsomeformsof

power-sharing(Catholic—Protestant)assemblyissetup.

4.TheEnglish

Traditionally,anEnglishmanisthoughttobereserved,unemotional,

courteous;shyofstranger;suspiciousofchangeandslowtoaccept

ideas;solidanddependablewithahighsenseofhonesty,dutyandju

physicallyandmorallycourageous;consciousofhisplaceinthe

order;dislikeanyshowofemotionandlackofcontrol;

theBritisharesuperiortoanyotherracesontheearth.

Thisstereotypepictureisfarfromtrue,especiallyintoday'sworld.

TheEnglishareasindividualastheinhabitantsofanyothernation.

Perhapsevenmoresobecausetheyaredescendedfromsomanydifferent

peoplewhoallcameandsettledinEnglandatsometimeorother.

TheCeltscamefromcentralandnorth-westernEuropebetween700

and200BC.Then,in55BC,theRomansinvadedandbroughtwiththem

theirlaws,taxes,engineeringskills,architectureandsocialsystemaswell

astheirlanguage,Latin,andtheirsystemofwritingandnumbering.They

introducedChristianityandwhentheydepartedinAD411,theyleft

behindawellestablishedCeltic-Romanculture.Theyalsoleftbehindthe

firstwrittendescriptionofthelandanditspeopleaswellasrecordsof

theiradministration.

TheRomanswerefollowedbythepaganAngles,SaxonsandJutes

whocamefromwhatisnowDemarkandnorthernGermany.FromAD

450to600theygraduallytookcontrolofmostofthecountry,became

Christiansandsettleddownasfarmer.ThenameEnglandis,infact,

derivedfromAengla-land.Next,itwastheturnofVikingraidersfrom

Scandinavia.Theyplunderedthecoastlandsandislands,buteventually

theytoosettled,intermarriedandfusedwiththelocalpopulation.During

theninthandtenthcenturies,Englandwasdividedalmostinhalfbetween

theVikingDanesintheeastandnortheastandtheSaxonsinthewest.By

theendofthetenthcentury,however,theSaxonscontrolledmostofthe

country.

InAD1066WilliamofNormandy(WilliamtheConqueror)landed

withalargearmedforceonthesouthcoastandwonagreatvictoryover

theSaxons.HeandhisFrench-speakingfollowerssetupastrongcentral

governmentwhichbroughtanewunifieddisciplineandcontroltothe

country.TheconquerorsintermarriedwiththerulingSaxonfamilies;they

builtcastlesatstrategicpointfordefenseandpeacekeeping;theymade

Frenchtheofficiallanguageandfirmlyestablishedthefeudalsystem.

Thiswasasocialandeconomicsystembasedonlandgivenandreceived

inreturnforserviceandprotection.Thekinggrantedlandtothe

aristocracy.Inreturntheselords,whohadalmosttotalcontroloflands

andthepeoplewholivedinthem,suppliedthekingwithfightingmen

andalsogavethemselvesformilitaryservicewhenrequired.Atthattime,

theNormankingsstillhadterritoriesinFranceandasaresult,therewere

numerouscontactsbetweenthetwocountries.TheFrenchinfluencegrew

sostrongthatmanyaspectsofEngland'ssocialandculturallifebecame

totallyFrench.

AfterEnglandbecameaProtestantcountryinthesixteenthcentury,

itbecamearefugeforotherProtestantsformCatholicstateswhowere

beingpersecutedfortheirfaith.Forexample,theHuguenot(French

Protestants)soughtshelterinEnglandandbroughtwiththemtheir

weavingtechniqueswhichlaidthefoundationofaprosperoustextile

industryineasternEngland.Overthecenturies,manyotherrefugesfrom

politicalandreligiouspersecutionhavefoundahomeinEnglandand

theirspecificskills,aswellastheirlanguages,haveenrichedtheEngland

economyandculture.

Oneofthegreatestmigrationoccurredinthe1930sandduringthe

SecondWorldWarwhenthousandsofpeople,especiallyJews,fledfrom

NazipersecutioninGermany,Austria,Czechoslovakiaandother

Europeanstates.Manyofthem,likethePolesandCzechs,stayedand

settledinBritainwhenthewarended.Alsoafterthewarmanydisplaced

personswhohadlosttheirhomesandpossessionsorwhohadbeen

imprisonedintheconcentrationcampsinEuropecametoliveinBritain

tobuildnewlivesforthemselves.Then,between1948and1962,many

nationalsfromcountriesoftheoldBritishEmpiremovedtoBritainasat

thattimetheyhadcompletefreedomofentry.Butin1962,thesituation

changedwiththeCommonwealthImmigrationAct.Peoplefrom

CommonwealthcountriesnolongerhadfreeentrytotheUKandcould

notclaimautomaticfullcitizenship.Immigrationfromboth

Commonwealthandnon-Commonwealthcountriesdo,ofcourse,still

takeplacebutisnowsubjecttostrictcontrol.

Lecture2

EnglishHistory

WecannothopetolearnthehistoryofBritaininonelecture,but

certainepisodesandcertainpeoplefromBritishhistoryformanecessary

partofourknowledge,andifwedonotknowaboutthemweshallbeata

disadvantageinourreading,ourconversation,andperhaps,ifweevergo

toBritaininoursightseeing.Evenwereadnovels;manyofthemostof

themhaveahistoricalbackground.

1.TheMiddleAges

TheclearesthistoricaliteminthegeneralknowledgeofmostBritish

people,soclearthatithasbecomeasortofjoke,intheyear1066(ten

sixty-six),whentheFrench-speakingNormansunderWilliamthe

ConquerorinvadedEnglandfromFrance,defeatingtheSaxonking

HaroldatthebattleofHastings(atowninSussexonthesouthcoast).

Haroldhimselfwaskilled,piercedthroughtheeyewithanarrow.Ofthe

timebeforethattheaveragepersonknowslittle.Heknowsaboutthe

Romans,ofcourse,andheissuretoknowthestoryofthefineSaxon

king:AlfredtheGreat,whowassobusythinkingofwaysofdefeatingthe

invadingDanesthatheletthecakesburninthefarmhousewherehewas

shelteringunrecognized.Alfred'sstatuecanstillbeseeninWinchester

(Hampshire),hisoldcapital.OfthestillearlierkingArthur,andhis

KnightsoftheRoundTable,eventheexpertsknowalmostnothing,

exceptthatheisassociatedwithCornwellandisthecentralfigureof

manylegends.

Aftertheyear1066,thenextepisodemostpeoplerememberisthe

Crusades.TherewereaseriesofwarsinwhicharmiesfromallEurope

triedtosnatchthe“HollyLand^^(i.e.Palestine,whereJesusChristonce

lived)fromthe“Infidels”(i.e.theMuslims).Themostfamousofthe

EnglishCrusaderswastheNormanking,RichardLion-heart,about

whomandaboutwhoseenemySaladinmanystorieshavebeentold.

TheCrusadesremindusthatBritainevenatthattimewasa

Christiancountry.Eachvillagehaditschurch,andmanyofthese

Norman-stylechurchesarestillstanding.Indeed,theChurch(usingthe

wordcollectively)wasextremelypowerfulinthosedays,andthePopein

Rome,whocouldalwaysinspirethefearofexternaldamnationby

''excommunicating”(i.e.expellingfromtheChurch)akingorevena

wholenation,wieldedgreatpoliticalpoweroverthewholeofWestern

Europe.

Theothergreatrivals,besidetheChurchoftheking'sauthoritywere

thepowerfullocalchiefs,calledbarons,whowerealwayscausingtrouble.

AtonestagetheymadeKingJohn,youngerbrotherofRichardLion-heart,

signadocumentcalledtheMagnaCarta("GreatCharter^^)bywhichhe

promisedtorecognizetheirrights,anditwasonlywiththePope'shelp

thatJohnwasabletoprevailagainstthem.TheMagnaCartaisnowinthe

BritishMuseum,London.

AllthekingsofthisperiodspokeFrenchastheirmothertongue,and

hadclosefamilyconnectionandinsomecasesextensiveterritoriesin

Franceitself.DisputesbetweenEnglandandFrancewerecommon.

HencecamethenextoutstandingepisodeinEnglandhistory,awarwith

Francewhichlasted,onandoff,forahundredyears.Itwasfought

entirelyinFrance,whereEnglishbowmendefeatedtheheavilyarmed

FrenchknightsinthefamousbattlesofCrecyandAgincourt,andthe

wholeofFranceverynearlyfellintoEnglishhands.Eventually,however,

partlythroughtheinspirationofthebravegirlJoanofArc,andpartly

throughtheeffectiveuseofguns,whichhadonlyjustbeeninvented,the

FrenchdrovetheEnglishfromtheircountryforgood.Englandbecame

completelyseveredfromFrance,andtheEnglishlanguagefinallytook

theplaceofFrenchinallclassesofsociety.

2.TheSixteenthCentury

Passingquicklyoveralongperiodofcivilwars,theWarsofthe

Roses,foughtbetweentwobranchesof