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·英譯漢練習(xí)短文6篇·Passage1SatiricLiterature1Perhapsthemoststrikingqualityofsatiricliteratureisitsfreshness,itsoriginalityofperspective.Satirerarelyoffersoriginalideas.Instead,itpresentsthefamiliarinanewform.Satiristsdonotoffertheworldnewphilosophies.Whattheydoislookatfamiliarconditionsfromaperspectivethatmakestheseconditionsseemfoolish,harmful,oraffected.Satirejarsusoutofcomplacenceintoapleasantlyshockedrealizationthatmanyofthevaluesweunquestioninglyacceptarefalse.DonQuixotemakeschivalryseemabsurd;BraveNewWorldridiculesthepretensionsofscience;AModestProposaldramatizesstarvationbyadvocatingcannibalism.Noneoftheseideasisoriginal.ChivalrywassuspectedbeforeCervantes2,humanistsobjectedtotheclaimsofpuresciencebeforeAldousHuxley3,andpeoplewereawareoffaminebeforeSwift4.Itwasnottheoriginalityoftheideathatmadethesesatirespopular.Itwasthemannerofexpression,thesatiricmethod,thatmadetheminterestingandentertaining.Satiresarereadbecausetheyareaestheticallysatisfyingworksofart,notbecausetheyaremorallywholesomeorethicallyinstructive.Theyarestimulatingandrefreshingbecausewithcommonsensebriskness5theybrushawayillusionsandsecondhandopinions6.Withspontaneousirreverence,satirerearrangesperspectives,scramblesfamiliarobjectsintoincongruousjuxtaposition,andspeaksinapersonalidiominsteadofabstractplatitude.Satireexistsbecausethereisneedforit.Ithaslivedbecausereadersappreciatearefreshingstimulus,anirreverentreminderthattheyliveinaworldofplatitudinousthinking,cheapmoralizing7,andfoolishphilosophy.Satireservestoprodpeopleintoanawarenessoftruth,thoughrarelytoanyactiononbehalfoftruth.Satiretendstoremindpeoplethatmuchofwhattheysee,hear,andreadinpopularmediaissanctimonious,sentimental,andonlypartiallytrue.Liferesemblesinonlyaslightdegreethepopularimageofit.Soldiersrarelyholdtheidealsthatmoviesattributetothem,notdoordinarycitizensdevotetheirlivestounselfishserviceofhumanity.Intelligentpeopleknowthesethingsbuttendtoforgetthemwhentheydonothearthemexpressed8.Notes1.這篇文章用詞正式,句式嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)、周密、冗長(zhǎng),文風(fēng)較為華麗。翻譯時(shí)選詞要正式,可多用四字結(jié)構(gòu)和鋪排形式。2.Cervantes:塞萬(wàn)提斯(1754-1616),西班牙偉大的作家、詩(shī)人、戲劇家。3.AldousHuxley:奧爾德斯·赫胥黎(1825-1895),英國(guó)生物學(xué)家,作家。4.Swift:斯威夫特(1667-1745),英國(guó)作家,擅長(zhǎng)用諷刺和幽默揭露社會(huì)黑暗現(xiàn)象。5.briskness:brisk意為keenorsharpinspeechormanner。6.secondhandopinions:不可翻譯為“二手的觀點(diǎn)”,應(yīng)該是“人云亦云的的觀點(diǎn)”。7.cheapmoralizing:這里cheap意思不是“便宜的”,而是vulgar,contemptible;moralizing不是“道德”,而是“說(shuō)教”。8.whentheydonothearthemexpressed:當(dāng)直譯不方便時(shí),我們可用視點(diǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移法:但是當(dāng)周?chē)瞬徽勂饡r(shí)Key諷刺文學(xué)或許諷刺文學(xué)最突出的特點(diǎn)是它耳目一新、視角獨(dú)創(chuàng)。諷刺文學(xué)很少給人以原創(chuàng)的思想,但是它卻將人們熟悉的事情以全新的形式展現(xiàn)出來(lái)。諷刺作家并不給人以新的哲學(xué)理念。他們所做的只是從某一視角來(lái)看待一些為人熟知的事情,在這一視角下,這些事情顯得愚蠢不堪、充滿危害而又矯揉造作。諷刺作品將我們從自鳴得意中震醒,讓我們既愉快又驚詫地看到,我們從未質(zhì)疑、全盤(pán)接受的價(jià)值觀中,有很多都是錯(cuò)誤的?!短萍娴隆肥沟抿T士精神顯得荒謬可笑;《挑戰(zhàn)新世界》嘲笑了科學(xué)的自詡;《一個(gè)小小的建議》則建議食用人肉,使饑餓問(wèn)題戲劇化。這些思想中沒(méi)有一條是原創(chuàng)的:在塞萬(wàn)提斯之前就有人懷疑騎士精神;在赫胥黎之前人文主義者就反對(duì)宣稱(chēng)純科學(xué)的至高無(wú)上;在斯威夫特之前人們就已經(jīng)意識(shí)到饑荒問(wèn)題。并不是思想的獨(dú)創(chuàng)而使得諷刺文學(xué)受人歡迎,而是它的表述方式、嘲諷方法使得它趣味橫生、有娛樂(lè)性。人們閱讀諷刺文學(xué)只是因?yàn)樵诿缹W(xué)上它是讓人心滿意足的藝術(shù)品,而不是因?yàn)樗诘赖律嫌幸婊騻惱砩系慕桃?。它激人興奮、爽人身心,因?yàn)樗皇沁\(yùn)用常理通識(shí)、辛言辣語(yǔ),便將各種幻想和人云亦云的觀點(diǎn)一掃而光。諷刺文學(xué)自心而來(lái)不拘謙恭,它重新調(diào)整視角,將熟悉的事物紊雜地放置在一起,用個(gè)性化的語(yǔ)言而不是抽象的陳詞濫語(yǔ)表述出來(lái)。諷刺作品之所以存在是因?yàn)槿藗冃枰?。它存續(xù)至今,是因?yàn)樽x者欣賞爽身怡心的刺激和不拘謙恭的告誡,它提醒讀者,他們生活的世界里充滿了陳腐的思想意識(shí)、低俗的道德說(shuō)教和愚蠢的哲學(xué)理念。諷刺作品雖然很少代表真理促成行動(dòng),但它卻能使人們感悟到真理。諷刺作品常常告訴人們,他們?cè)诖蟊娒襟w中所看到的、聽(tīng)到的、讀到的大多是偽裝善良、多愁善感或只有部分真實(shí)。生活只在很小的程度上與大眾對(duì)它的印象相符。士兵們很少擁有電影賦予他們的理想,而普通老百姓也決不會(huì)把自己的生命無(wú)私地奉獻(xiàn)給人道主義服務(wù)。聰明人知道這些事實(shí),但是當(dāng)周?chē)瞬徽勂饡r(shí),他們常常會(huì)忘記掉。Passage2AmericanFolkArtWhatwetodaycallAmericanfolkartwas,artof,by,andforordinary,everyday1“folks”who,withincreasingprosperityandleisure,createdamarketforartofallkinds,andespeciallyforportraits.Citizensofprosperous,essentiallymiddle-classrepublics—whetherancientRomans,seventeenth-centuryDutchburghers,ornineteenth-centuryAmericans—havealwaysshownamarkedtasteforportraiture.Startinginthelateeighteenthcentury,theUnitedStatescontainedincreasingnumberofsuchpeople,andoftheartistswhocouldmeettheirdemands.TheearliestAmericanfolkartportraitscome,notsurprisingly,fromNewEngland—especiallyConnecticutandMassachusetts—forthiswasawealthyandpopulousregionandthecenterofastrongcrafttradition.WithinafewdecadesafterthesigningoftheDeclarationofIndependencein1776,thepopulationwaspushingwestward,andtheportraitpainterscouldbefoundatworkinwesternNewYork,Ohio,Kentucky,Illinois,andMissouri.Midwaythroughitsfirstcentury2asanation,theUnitedStates’populationhadincreasedroughlyfivetimes,andelevennewstateshadbeenaddedtooriginalthirteen.Duringtheseyears,thedemandforportraitsgrewandgrew,eventuallytobesatisfiedbycamera.In1839thedaguerreotypewasintroducedtoAmerica,usheringintheageofphotography,andwithinagenerationthenewinventionputanendtothepopularityofpaintedportraits.Onceagainanoriginalportraitbecamealuxury,commissionedbythewealthyandexecutedbytheprofessional.Butintheheydayofportraitpainting—fromthelateeighteenthcenturyuntilthe1850’s—anyonewithamodicumofartisticabilitycouldbecomealimner,assuchaportraitist3wascalled.Localcraftspeople—sign,coach,andhousepainters—begantopaintportraitsasaprofitablesideline;sometimesatalentedmanorwomanwhobeganbysketchingfamilymembersgainedalocalreputationandwasbesiegedwithrequestsforportraits;artistsfounditworththeirwhiletopacktheirpaints,canvasses,andbrushesandtotravelthecountryside,oftencombininghousedecoratingwithportraitpainting.Noteseveryday:意為commonplace,ordinarymidwaythroughitsfirstcentury:美國(guó)獨(dú)立后50年間portraitist:譯為“畫(huà)師”,以和前面的limner(畫(huà)家)相區(qū)別。Key美國(guó)民間藝術(shù)我們所說(shuō)的美國(guó)民間藝術(shù)是由普通百姓所擁有、創(chuàng)造并享受的藝術(shù)。隨著財(cái)富和閑暇與日俱增,他們創(chuàng)造了各種藝術(shù)的市場(chǎng),特別是肖像繪畫(huà)。家境殷實(shí)的、主要是中產(chǎn)階級(jí)的市民——不管他們是古羅馬人,或是17世紀(jì)荷蘭自治城市富裕居民,抑或是19世紀(jì)的美國(guó)人——都對(duì)肖像繪畫(huà)藝術(shù)表現(xiàn)出突出的愛(ài)好。從18世紀(jì)晚期開(kāi)始,美國(guó)這一群體的數(shù)量不斷增加,而且滿足畫(huà)像要求的藝術(shù)家也不斷地增加。勿需驚奇,美國(guó)最早的民間藝術(shù)畫(huà)像來(lái)自于新英格蘭地區(qū)——特別是康涅狄格州和.麻薩諸塞州——因?yàn)檫@一地區(qū)富裕、人口稠密,而且是濃厚藝術(shù)傳統(tǒng)的中心。1776年《獨(dú)立宣言》宣布后的幾十年中,人口不斷西徙,在紐約州西部、俄亥俄州、肯塔基州、伊利諾斯州、密蘇里州,人們隨處可見(jiàn)肖像畫(huà)師繪畫(huà)的身影。美國(guó)獨(dú)立后50年間,人口增加了近5倍,原先13個(gè)州又增加了11個(gè)。在這些歲月里,肖像繪畫(huà)的要求不斷增長(zhǎng),直到有了照相機(jī)才算得到滿足。1839年銀版照相法傳入美國(guó),攝影時(shí)代開(kāi)始,而且,在不超過(guò)一代人的時(shí)間內(nèi),手工畫(huà)像就不再風(fēng)靡了。從此,人物畫(huà)像又成為了奢侈品——有錢(qián)人提出繪畫(huà)要求,專(zhuān)業(yè)畫(huà)家來(lái)完成繪畫(huà)。但是在肖像繪畫(huà)的全盛時(shí)期——從18世紀(jì)晚期到19世紀(jì)50年代——任何有一點(diǎn)藝術(shù)才能的人都可以成為“畫(huà)家”,當(dāng)時(shí)的肖像畫(huà)師就是這么被人稱(chēng)呼的。當(dāng)?shù)厮嚾恕獦?biāo)牌、馬車(chē)、房屋的畫(huà)師——也開(kāi)始畫(huà)人物肖像作為一個(gè)賺錢(qián)的副業(yè)。有時(shí)候有繪畫(huà)天賦的男子或婦女一開(kāi)始只給家庭成員勾勒畫(huà)像,很快在當(dāng)?shù)芈曌u(yù)鵲起,然后很多人前來(lái)要求畫(huà)像;藝術(shù)家們發(fā)現(xiàn),他們收拾起顏料、畫(huà)布、畫(huà)筆去各地巡游,既做房屋裝飾又畫(huà)人物肖像,是一件非常值得的事情。Passage3CrowsCrowsareprobablythemostfrequentlymetandeasilyidentifiablemembersofthenativefaunaoftheUnitedStates.Thegreatnumberoftales,legends,andmythsaboutthesebirdsindicatesthatpeoplehavebeenexceptionallyinterestedinthemforalongtime.Ontheotherhand,whenitcomestosubstantive─particularlybehavioral─information,crowsarelesswellknownthanmanycomparablycommonspeciesand,forthatmatter,notafewquiteuncommonones,theendangeredCaliforniacondor,tociteoneobviousexample.Therearepracticalreasonsforthis.Crowsarenotoriouslypoorandaggravatingsubjectsforfieldresearch.Keenobserversandquicklearners,theyareastuteabouttheintentionsofothercreatures,includingresearchers,andadeptatavoidingthem.Becausetheyaresonumerous,active,andmonochromatic,itisdifficulttodistinguishonecrowfromanother.Bands,radiotransmitters,orotheridentifyingdevicescanbeattachedtothem,butthisofcourserequirescatchinglivecrows,whoareamongthewariestandmostuntrappableofbirds.Technicaldifficultiesaside,crowresearchisdauntingbecausethewaysofthesebirdsaresocomplexandvarious.Aspreeminentgeneralists,membersofthisspeciesingeniouslyexploitagreatrangeofhabitatsandresources,andtheycanquicklyadjusttochangesintheircircumstances.Beingsoeducable,individualbirdshavemarkedlydifferentinterestsandinclinations,strategiesandscams.Forexample,onepetcrowlearnedhowtoletadogoutofitskennelbypullingthepinonthedoor.Whenthedogescaped,thebirdwentintothekennelandateitsfood.Key烏鴉烏鴉可能是美國(guó)本土動(dòng)物中最常見(jiàn)、也是最容易識(shí)別的成員(物種)。關(guān)于它的奇聞異事和神話傳說(shuō)(故事、傳說(shuō)和神話)流傳眾多,可見(jiàn),人們對(duì)它的濃厚興趣由來(lái)已久。另一方面,在提及對(duì)它的本性——特別是行為方面的了解時(shí),與其他同樣普通和一些非常罕見(jiàn)的物種——一個(gè)顯而易見(jiàn)的例子是加州瀕臨滅絕的禿鷲——相比,它更鮮為人知。這其中有一些實(shí)際的原因。眾所周知,野外的烏鴉研究成果甚少,并讓研究者苦惱不已。它們觀察敏銳,領(lǐng)悟快捷,善于分辨其他動(dòng)物和研究人員的意圖,并能巧妙地避開(kāi)他們。由于烏鴉數(shù)量眾多、顏色單一、機(jī)警靈活,人們很難把它們區(qū)分開(kāi)來(lái)。人們當(dāng)然可以把腳環(huán)、無(wú)線電發(fā)射機(jī)和其他識(shí)別裝置縛在烏鴉身上,但這卻要滿足一個(gè)前提,那就是活抓烏鴉——但這卻是最為機(jī)警、最難抓到的鳥(niǎo)類(lèi)之一。烏鴉的研究之所以令人卻步,撇開(kāi)技術(shù)上的困難不談,其原因之一便是它們生活方式復(fù)雜多變。它們是超凡的多面手,其種族中的一些成員創(chuàng)造性地開(kāi)發(fā)了大量的棲息地、利用大量的資源,而且能很快適應(yīng)環(huán)境的變化。由于善于學(xué)習(xí),每個(gè)烏鴉個(gè)體都有迥然不同的興趣、愛(ài)好,策略和花招。比如,有一只寵物烏鴉,學(xué)會(huì)將狗窩上的門(mén)閂拉開(kāi)放狗出窩。狗出窩后,它便進(jìn)去,享用了狗的美食。Passage4LifeonEarthLifeoriginatedintheearlyseaslessthanabillionyearsaftertheEarthwasformed.Yetanotherthreebillionyearsweretopassbeforethefirstplantsandanimalsappearedonthecontinents.Life’stransitionfromtheseatothelandwasperhapsasmuchofanevolutionarychallengeaswasthegenesisoflife.WhatformsoflifewereabletomakesuchadrasticchangeinlifestyleThetraditionalviewofthefirstterrestrialorganismsisbasedonmegafossils--relativelylargespecimensofessentiallywholeplantsandanimals.Vascularplants,relatedtomodernseedplantsandferns,leftthefirstcomprehensivemegafossilrecord.Becauseofthis,ithasbeencommonlyassumedthatthesequenceofterrestrializationreflectedtheevolutionofmodernterrestrialecosystems.Inthisview,primitivevascularplatsfirstcolonizedthemarginsofcontinentalwaters,followedbyanimalsthatfedontheplants,andlastlybyanimalsthatpreyedontheplant-eaters.Moreover,themegafossilssuggestthatterrestriallifeappearedanddiversifiedexplosivelyneartheboundarybetweentheSilurianandtheDevonianperiods,alittlemorethan400millionyearsago.Recently,however,paleontologistshavebeentakingacloserlookatthesedimentsbelowthisSilurian-Devoniangeologicalboundary.Itturnsoutthatsomefossilscanbeextractedfromthesesedimentsbyputtingtherocksinanacidbath.Thetechniquehasuncoverednewevidencefromsedimentsthatweredepositedneartheshoresoftheancientoceans-plantmicrofossilsandmicroscopicpiecesofsmallanimals.Inmanyinstancesthespecimensarelessthanone-tenthofamillimeterindiameter.Althoughtheywereentombedintherocksforhundredsofmillionsofyears,manyofthefossilsconsistoftheorganicremainsoftheorganism.Thesenewlydiscoveredfossilshavenotonlyrevealedtheexistenceofpreviouslyunknownorganisms,buthavealsopushedbackthesedatesfortheinvasionoflandbymulticellularorganisms.Ourviewsaboutthenatureoftheearlyplantandanimalcommunitiesarenowbeingrevised.Andwiththoserevisionscomenewspeculationsaboutthefirstterrestriallife-forms.Key在地球形成不到十億年的時(shí)間后,生命就起源于早期的海洋了。然而(按照以前通行的觀點(diǎn)),要再過(guò)30億年,第一批動(dòng)植物才出現(xiàn)在大陸上。或許,正如生命的起源一樣,生命從海洋向陸地的過(guò)渡,同樣在進(jìn)化論上受到質(zhì)疑。什么形式的生命能使其生活方式發(fā)生如此驚人的變化?對(duì)于第一批登陸的生物,傳統(tǒng)的觀點(diǎn)是建立在巨化石基礎(chǔ)上的,這些巨化石是一些基本上完整的動(dòng)植物的較大標(biāo)本。與現(xiàn)代種子植物和蕨類(lèi)植物有種屬相關(guān)的微管植物,留下了一批巨化石記錄。因此,人們可以推測(cè),生命登陸的次序反映了現(xiàn)代陸生系統(tǒng)的進(jìn)化。按照這種觀點(diǎn),維管植物首先移居到大陸水域的周邊,其次是以這種植物為食的動(dòng)物,最后是吃這種食草動(dòng)物的動(dòng)物。而且,巨化石也表明(提示),在四億多年前的志留紀(jì)和盆泥紀(jì)之間的期間(在志留紀(jì)和盆泥紀(jì)之間的期間,即四億多年前),陸生生命已經(jīng)出現(xiàn),種類(lèi)也急劇增加。但是最近,古生物學(xué)家一直對(duì)志留紀(jì)-盆泥紀(jì)抵制界限以下的積淀物進(jìn)行更為周密的調(diào)查。結(jié)果表明,將巖石放在一些盛有酸的容器里,一些化石就能從這些沉淀物中離析出來(lái)。這項(xiàng)技術(shù)從古海洋岸邊的沉積物中又發(fā)現(xiàn)了新的證據(jù)——植物的微小化石以及在顯微鏡才可以看得見(jiàn)的小動(dòng)物的碎片。多數(shù)情況下,標(biāo)本的直徑不足1/10微米。盡管他們?cè)趲r石中埋藏了數(shù)億年,許多化石仍遺留有生物體的有機(jī)物質(zhì)。這些新發(fā)現(xiàn)的化石不僅揭示了先前不為人質(zhì)的有機(jī)體的存在,也將多細(xì)胞生物進(jìn)居陸地的時(shí)間向前推移。我們對(duì)早期動(dòng)植物群體(群落)本質(zhì)的看法正得以修正,隨之而來(lái)的是對(duì)第一批陸生生命的新推斷。Passage5HistoricalMethodsWhiletherearealmostasmanydefinitionsofhistoryastherearehistorians,modernpracticemostcloselyconformstoonethatseeshistoryastheattempttorecreateandexplainthesignificanteventsofthepast.Caughtinthewebofitsowntimeandplace,eachgenerationofhistoriansdeterminesanewwhatissignificantforitinthepast.Inthissearchtheevidencefoundisalwaysincompleteandscattered;itisalsofrequentlypartialorpartisan.Theironyofthehistorian’scraftisthatitspractitionersalwaysknowthattheireffortsarebutcontributionstoanunendingprocess.Interestinhistoricalmethodshasarisenlessthroughexternalchallengetothevalidityofhistoryasanintellectualdisciplineandmorefrominternalquarrelsamonghistoriansthemselves.Whilehistoryoncerevereditsaffinitytoliteratureandphilosophy,theemergingsocialsciencesseemedtoaffordgreateropportunitiesforaskingnewquestionsandprovidingrewardingapproachestoanunderstandingofthepast.Socialsciencemethodologieshadtobeadaptedtoadisciplinegovernedbytheprimacyofhistoricalsourcesratherthantheimperativesofthecontemporaryworld.Duringthistransfer,traditionalhistoricalmethodswereaugmentedbyadditionalmethodologiesdesignedtointerpretthenewformsofevidenceinthehistoricalstudy.Methodologyisatermthatremainsinherentlyambiguousinthehistoricalprofession.Thereisnoagreementwhethermethodologyreferstotheconceptspeculiartohistoricalworkingeneralortotheresearchtechniquesappropriatetothevariousbranchesofhistoricalinquiry.Historians,especiallythosesoblindedbytheirresearchintereststhattheyhavebeenaccusedof“tunnelmethod,”frequentlyfallvictimtothe“technicistfallacy.”Alsocommoninthenaturalsciences,thetechnicistfallacymistakenlyidentifiesthedisciplineasawholewithcertainpartsofitstechnicalimplementation.Itappliesequallytotraditionalhistorianswhoviewhistoryasonlytheexternalandinternalcriticismofsources,andtosocialsciencehistorianswhoequatetheiractivitywithspecifictechniques.Vocabulary:practice:customcreate:makesthfromthepastexitagainorseemtoexistagainaffinity:acloseconnectionbetweentwothingsbecauseofqualitiesorfeaturesthattheysharerevere:respectandadmireprimacy:thestateofbeingthemostimportantthingorpersoninherent:aqualitythatisinherentinsomethingisanaturalpartofitandcannotbeseparatedfromitequate:toconsiderthattwoormorethingsaresimilarorconnectedKey歷史研究方法雖然每一位歷史學(xué)家對(duì)歷史有自己的界定,但是,現(xiàn)代最習(xí)慣的做法是,將歷史看著是對(duì)過(guò)去重大事件進(jìn)行再現(xiàn)并予以解釋。每一代的歷史學(xué)家,總會(huì)根據(jù)自身所處的時(shí)代和位置,重新判定過(guò)去的事件中哪些是重要的。這樣找到的證據(jù)往往是不完全的、零散的;也常常是片面的、有著個(gè)人偏見(jiàn)的。對(duì)歷史學(xué)家研究技藝的諷刺在于,運(yùn)用這一技藝的人總是知道,他們所付出的努力不過(guò)是在給一個(gè)無(wú)邊無(wú)際的過(guò)程不斷加磚添瓦。人們對(duì)歷史學(xué)研究方法產(chǎn)生興趣原因有二,其主要原因是歷史學(xué)家內(nèi)部意見(jiàn)不統(tǒng)一,其次原因是,將歷史學(xué)作為一門(mén)需要智力活動(dòng)參與(進(jìn)行分析和研究)的學(xué)科是否合理,外界持尚有懷疑態(tài)度。雖然以前的歷史學(xué)重視與文學(xué)和哲學(xué)的緊密關(guān)系,但是在提出新問(wèn)題、并為理解過(guò)去提供有益的方法方面,新興的社會(huì)科學(xué)似乎提供了更多的機(jī)會(huì)。社會(huì)科學(xué)方法論必須調(diào)整之后適應(yīng)這樣的學(xué)科:它由歷史資料的重要程度決定,而非根據(jù)當(dāng)代世界所必不可少的需求決定。在歷史學(xué)的研究中還有其他的一些方法是用來(lái)解釋歷史資料的。而在上一轉(zhuǎn)化過(guò)程中,這些方法使得傳統(tǒng)研究方法更為有效。在歷史學(xué)界,方法論是一個(gè)從根本上就非常含糊的術(shù)語(yǔ)。它到底是普通歷史研究中所特有的概念,還是適合于各個(gè)分支領(lǐng)域的研究技巧,人們對(duì)此尚無(wú)定論。歷史學(xué)家,特別是那些盲目從于自己的研究興趣、因而被指責(zé)為使用“井蛙(狹隘)方法”的歷史學(xué)家,常常成為“技術(shù)謬誤”的犧牲品。同樣,在自然科學(xué)領(lǐng)域,技術(shù)謬誤也錯(cuò)誤地將學(xué)科看成是由一些技術(shù)運(yùn)用所組成的整體。這種謬誤同樣存在于傳統(tǒng)歷史學(xué)派和社會(huì)科學(xué)歷史學(xué)派的身上,前者認(rèn)為歷史就是史學(xué)界內(nèi)部和外部人士對(duì)各種史料的評(píng)議;后者認(rèn)為歷史的研究應(yīng)該是某些具體技術(shù)的運(yùn)用。Passage6TheMethodofScientificInvestigationThemethodofscientificinvestigationisnothingbuttheexpressionofthenecessarymodeofworkingofthehumanmind;itissimplythemodebywhichallphenomenaarereasonedaboutandgivenpreciseandexactexplanation.Thereisnomoredifference,butthereisjustthesamekindofdifference,betweenthementaloperationsofamanofscienceandthoseofanordinaryperson,asthereisbetweentheoperationsandmethodsofabakerorofabutcherweighingouthisgoodsincommonscales,andtheoperationsofachemistinperformingadifficultandcomplexanalysisbymeansofhisbalanceandfinelygradedweights.Itisnotthatthescalesintheonecase,andthebalanceintheother,differintheprinciplesoftheirconstructionormannerofworking;butthatthelatterisamuchfinerapparatusandofcoursemuchmoreaccurateinitsmeasurementthantheformer.Youwillunderstandthisbetter,perhaps,ifIgiveyousomefamiliarexamples.Youhaveallhearditrepeatedthatmenofscienceworkbymeansofinductionanddeduction,thatbythehelpoftheseoperations,they,inasortofsense,managetoextractfromNaturecertainnaturallaws,andthatoutofthese,bysomespecialskilloftheirown,theybuilduptheirtheories.Anditisimaginedbymanythattheoperationsofthecommonmindcanbebynome

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