從語用學(xué)的禮貌原則看英語中的委婉語

從語用學(xué)的禮貌原那么看英語中的委婉語【Abstract】Euphemism,cosmeticwords,isnotonlyalingualphenomenon,butalsoaculturalandsocialphenomenon.Itislikeamirror,reflectingthevalues,aestheticconceptionsandmoralconceptsinsomeextent.Euphemismplaysanimportantpartinsocialmunication.Itislikelubethatavoidshurtingtheotherparty’sfeeling.Itoilsthehumanrelationshipinmunicationandhelpstosavefaceofmunicators.Ifpeoplemakefulluseofeuphemism,itcanaccelerateandfacilitatehumanmunication.Thispaperelaboratesonthefeaturesandsocialfunctionsofeuphemism.AnditfocusesontherelationshipsbetweenitspolitefunctionsandPolitenessPrinciple.ThisthesisisposedofsixpartswithChapterFourandFiveasitscore:Thefirstchapterfocusesontheoriginanddefinitionsofeuphemism.Thesecondchapterdiscussesthefeaturesofeuphemisminmanyways.Thethirdchaptertalksaboutthesocialfunctionsofeuphemismfromtheangleofpragmatics.Thefourthchapterformsthebasisofthewholeresearchbyconnectingeuphemismwithpolitenessandface-savingtheory.ThefifthchaptercentersoneuphemismandPolitenessPrinciple.Thelastchapterconcludesthewholethesis.AppropriateuseofEnglisheuphemismcancontributealottosuccessfulmessageexchange.【KeyWords】euphemism;socialfunctions;PolitenessPrinciple;facewant【摘要】委婉語是一種語言現(xiàn)象，一種文化現(xiàn)象，更是一種社會(huì)現(xiàn)象，在一定程度上，它反映了社會(huì)的價(jià)值觀，審美觀和美德觀。委婉語在社會(huì)交際中發(fā)揮著重要作用。日常的約定俗成的委婉語能起光滑劑的作用，通過委婉語，可以防止語言過于直露而給對(duì)方造成傷害。它是語言使用中人們用來協(xié)調(diào)人際關(guān)系的有效光滑劑，是保全交際各方面子的重要手段。很多中外學(xué)者曾從不同的角度對(duì)英語委婉語進(jìn)展了長期的研究并獲得了可喜的成果。本文主要研討了委婉語的特點(diǎn)，社會(huì)功用，并從語用學(xué)的角度分析了委婉語的社會(huì)功用，禮貌原那么及面子問題。本文分為六個(gè)局部。第四和第五章是文章的重點(diǎn)。第一章主要討論了委婉語的定義及起源。第二章從很多方面概括了委婉語的特點(diǎn)。第三章從語用的角度分析了委婉語的社會(huì)功用。第四章把委婉語與禮貌，面子保全論聯(lián)絡(luò)在一起，是本文的核心。第五章側(cè)重于委婉語貌與禮貌原那么的關(guān)系。本文的理論意義在于其分析結(jié)論有助于保證信息傳遞的順利進(jìn)展并促進(jìn)人們的日常交流?！娟P(guān)鍵詞】委婉語；社會(huì)功用；禮貌原那么；面子1.IntroductionThereisahumor:OnceaParistouristresidedinUK.Alandladytoldhimsadlythat,“Myhusbandhasjustpassedtotheotherside.〞Theguestlookedfromthefenceofthegardenbutsawnoone,feelingconfused.Thelandladyexplained:“Imeanhe’skickedthebucket.〞Theguestfortedherthat:“Ihopehisfootwillbebettersoon.〞Thelandladyfeltunintelligiblyandsaid:“No,hewasn’there,hesnuffedit…youknow.〞Theguestwonderedandsaid:“Butyou’vegotelectricityhere.〞Thereasonswhytheguestdidn’tanswerproperlyarethathedidn’trealizethatthelandladyusedeuphemism,nordidheunderstandthe“conversationalimplicature〞ofeuphemism.Whatthelandladywantedtosayisthatherhusbanddied.ThewordeuphemismesfromtheGreekword“euphemos〞,meaning"auspicious/good/fortunatespeech"whichinturnisderivedfromtheGreekroot---wordseu,"good/well"+pheme,"speech/speaking".Theeuphemewasoriginallyawordorphraseusedinplaceofareligiouswordorphrasethatshouldnotbespokenaloud(Suchastaboo).TheprimaryexamplesoftaboowordsrequiringtheuseofaeuphemismaretheunspeakablenamesforadEity,suchasPersephone,Hecate,NemesisorYahweh.Byspeakingonlywordsfavorabletothegodsorspirits,thespeakerattemptedtoproducegoodfortunebyremainingingoodfavorwiththem.“EuphemismisdefinedintheNewEditionoftheOxfordConciseDictionary(1976)as‘Substitutionofmildorvagueorroundaboutexpressionforharshordirectone;expressionthussubstituted.’INWebster’sNewCollegiateDictionary(1973)thedefinitionreads,‘Substitutionofanagreeableorinoffensiveexpressionforonethatmayoffendorsuggestsomethingunpleasant.’〞[1]EuphemismisanimportantrhetoricalmeansinEnglish.Itplaysanimportantroleinpeople’sdailymunication.Itisnotonlyaculturalphenomenon,butalsoasocialphenomenon.Itjustlikesamirror,whichreflectssomesocialandpsychologicalphenomena.2.Featuresofeuphemism2.1IndirectandimplicitThemostimportantcharacterofeuphemismisindirectandimplicit.Euphemismalwaysgivespeoplehintsinaroundaboutway.Wecaninferthedeepermeaningandintentionfromthecontext.Forexample,whensomeoneisill,wealwayssayheisundertheweather.Ifsomeoneismad,wesayheissoftinmind.2.2UniversalityUniversalityissomethingthatiswell-knownandacceptedbyallofthepeople.Thougheuphemismisindirectanditdoesn’testraighttothepoint,peoplecaneasilyinferitsdeeperimplication.Sometaboosconnectedwithsex,death,orbodyfunctionsarereplacedbyeuphemisms.Andthepublichasacceptedthiskindofuse.Forexample,whenwerefertodeath,weseldomsay“die〞.Weusetheexpression“passaway〞.2.3ThefeatureoftimesThechangesoflanguagedependontheneedandchangesofthesociety.Andeuphemismundergoesaprocessofmetabolism.Itbearsamarkedbrandoftimes.Forexample,“‘Sheispregnant’hasmanydifferenteuphemisticexpressionsindifferenteras.(1)Shehascanceledallhersocialengagements.(1856)(2)Sheisinaninterestingcondition.(1880)(3)Sheisinadelicatecondition.(1895)(4)Sheisknittinglittlebootees.(1910)(6)Sheisexpecting.(1935)Butafter1960s,euphemismsofpregnantdevelopslowlybecauseinmoderntimes,peoplearenotsoimplicit.Theyalwaysmentionthingsdirectly.Andnow,thephenomenonofpregnantisacheerfulthing.Peoplewillnotbeshywhenmentioningit.“Theword‘gay’,atfirst,itmeanshappyandhomosexuality.Butaseuphemismdevelops,theword‘gay’onlyremindsusthemeaningofhomosexuality.Thus,peopledon’tusetheexpression‘Weareyoungandgay.’〞[3]2.4RegionalfeatureIneuphemism,therearesomeregionaldifferences.AnAustralianwomanmarriedtoanAmericanman.TheyspentthEIrhoneymooninAmerica.Andoneday,thecoupleintendedtogotoapartytogether.Butthebridegroomcouldn’tfindasuitablefulldress.Thebridetookoutabirthdaysuitthatshegavehimasapresentfewdaysagoandsaid:“Whynotwearyourbirthdaysuit?〞However,thewholefamilyallastonishedbecauseinAmericanEnglish,“inone’sbirthdaysuit〞[4]istheeuphemisticexpressionof“naked〞.Sothisembarrassingsituationresultedfromtheregionaldifferencesineuphemism.Therearetwocausesofregionaldifferences.Firstisaregionalculturaldifference.Indifferentregions,theculturetherewilleffectthedevelopmentofeuphemism.Forexample,“gotow.c.〞.IntheBalliolcollegeofOxfordUniversity,studentscall“‘gototoilet’as‘tovisitLadyPeriam’〞[5]becausethetoiletsofthatcollegewerebuiltonthelanddonatedbyLadyPeriam.Ofcourse,Americanswillnotagreewiththisexpression.“Secondisthedifferenceofgeographicenvironment.Forexample,inseaside,deathwouldbeconnectedwithseaandtide.Theymayuse‘gowiththetide’toexpressdie.Onthecontrary,inAmericanwestmountainareas,theeuphemismfordieis‘(gone)overtherange’or‘tocrosstheGreatDivide’.Thesearethetypicalregionaleuphemisms.〞[6]2.5DiversityoflingualregionSomeonethinksthatonlyupperandmiddleclassuseeuphemism.Butthisconclusionistooabsolute.Wecananalyzethisinthreeaspects.2.5.1Differencesofgenderorage“Astudyshowsthatfemaleusemoreeuphemismsthanmaledo.ThereisasayinginEnglish:‘horsesweat;menperspire;youngladiesglow.’(Brock,1973:73)Womenuseobscurewordtoexpresstheactionofsweat.Andthedifferenceofgenderandageusuallyinfluencethechoiceofthesynonymsofeuphemism.Forinstance,thereareavarietyofexpressionsabout‘gototoilet’.Menusetheexpression‘toshootalion’.Adultsmaysay‘togotow.c.’.Andchildrensay‘togotothepot’.〞[7]2.5.2DifferenceofprofessionoridentityEuphemismchangeswhiletheprofessionandidentitychange.Thisisasynchronyvariation.Theword“die〞canbeusedinmanydifferentways.“Inmilitary,peopleusetheexpression‘tolosenumberofone’smess’.ThisexpressionorientsfromthemesssystemofUKnavy.However,inthepress,peopleoftenusetheword‘thirty’becausetheyusuallymark‘30’intheendofanewsarticle,whichmeansending.〞[8]2.5.3DifferenceofstyleorcontextStylistically,theword“die〞hashundredsofeuphemisms.Butindailymunication,peoplemayuse“tobegone〞or“tobenomore〞.Inobituary,peopleuse“topassaway〞or“todepart〞.Italsohassomewittyexpressions,forinstance,“topopoff〞or“tokickthebucket〞.Euphemismisrestrictedbythecontext.Forexample,“Onthe14thofMarch,ataquartertothreeintheafternoon,thegreatestlivingthinkerceasedtothink.(F.Engels,SpeechattheGravesideofKarlMarx)〞[9]Thisexampleinvolvesthepassingawayofagreatman.Andthephrase“ceasedtothink〞echoes“thinker〞.Thiseuphemismproducesagoodeffect.3.Pragmaticfunctionsofeuphemism3.1Taboofunction“Tabooisthemainpsychologicalbasisoftheemergenceofeuphemism.Euphemismistheavoidanceoftheunpleasant,inelegantthings.AfamoussociolinguistMr.ChenYuanoncesaid:‘Generallyspeaking,theingintobeingofeuphemismallbeginsfromtaboo.’Fromtheoriginofeuphemism,wecanseethattabooisthefirstfunctionofeuphemism.Euphemismhasbeenusingforalongtime,anditiscloselyrelatedtotaboo.Infact,euphemismdatesbacktothelanguagetaboointheearlyperiodofhumancivilization.Whenpeopletrytoavoidandgiveuptaboowords,theyhavetofindanotherwordtoreplacethisvacancyatthesametime.Hence,peoplecreatedeuphemism.〞[10]Therearesometaboothings,suchasbirth,death,funeral,sex,nakedness,defecation,andurinate.Iftheyareexpresseddirectly,theyarecalledtaboowordsandthefeelingstheygiveusarevulgar,crudeandharsh,whereasiftheyareexpressedindirectly,theyarecalledeuphemism,andtheimpressionstheymadeonusareelegant,implicitandpolite.Theevadingfunctionofeuphemismalsoworkstoday.Sometaboonotionscannotbeeasilyremovedfrompeople’smind.3.2PolitefunctionPolitefunctionofeuphemismistoavoidinelegantthingsandmakepeoplefeelpleasant.AsJoannaChannellputinherbookVagueLanguage“Vaguenessisusedasonewayofadheringtothepolitenessrulesforaparticularculture,andofnotthreateningface.〞[13]Itmeansthatinreallife,whenpeoplemeetwithsomeunpleasantthingsorbehaviors,theyusuallychoosesomevagueexpressionstoavoidmakingboldorhurtingother’sfeeling----touseeuphemism.Itisharshtosaysomeoneisdeaf,sopeopleuse“auditory-impaired〞toreplaceit.Theysoundmoregracefully.“WhenEnglish-speakersrefertotheappearance,theydon’tusetheword‘ugly’or‘a(chǎn)wful’,whichhasstrongderogatorysense.Instead,theyusetheword‘plain-looking’or‘notpretty’.〞[14]Westernersaresensitivetoage.Intheiropinion,“old〞equalsto“useless〞insomeextent.Inordernottohurtthefeelingandself-esteemoftheold,“oldmen〞arereplacedby“seniorcitizens〞or“seasonedmen〞.Fortheword“senior〞hasmanymeanings.Except“older〞,italsomeanshigherinrankorauthority.Andtheword“seasoned〞meansexperienced.“Followingaresomeeuphemismsaboutprofession.〞[15]HarshexpressioneuphemismbutcherMeattechnologistChimneyworkerChimneyconsultantfiremanFirefighterGarbagemanSanitationengineerhairdresserHairstylisthousekeeperHouseholdexecutivePress-agentPublicrelationcounselorPrisonguardCorrectionalofficer3.3CoveringupfunctionInVaguenessLanguage,Channellstatedcoveringupfunctionasdeliberatelywithholdinginformation.Whatissocalled“coverup〞means“notgivinginformationwhichthespeakerpossessesandwhichcouldbeappropriateinthesituation.〞[16]Westernpoliticallifegivesbirthtoeuphemism.Somepoliticiansandnewsmediashavemadegooduseofthevaguenessofeuphemismtocoverupthefactsofsomeeventsforthepurposeofmakingthepolitics,economy,andmilitarymoresteady.Concealingthedarksideofsocietyistoalleviatethesocialcontradictionscausedbysex,violence,poverty,unemployment,andcrime.Therearesomeeuphemismsaboutsocialphenomena.“Venerealdisease〞hasbeenbeautifiedas“socialdisease〞.“Rape〞,akindofcrime,ismentionedcasuallyas“interferewith〞;“prostitutionbecameahigh-soundingprofession------‘theoldestprofessionintheworld’.〞[17]Inpoliticians’view,violenceisakindofactionanddismissalisalso“l(fā)ayoff〞.Peopledon’tneedtobesurprisedatthesephenomena.Inwesterncountries,politicianscreatesomepoliticaleuphemismstoservetheirpoliticalgoals.Theytrytoconcealthefactsastoeasethetenserelationsbetweenothercountriesandreassureandpacifypublic’santi-waremotions.Forexample,InVietnamWar,Gulfwar,orIraqiwar,anumberofeuphemismsemergedtoglossoverthehorrorandcrueltyofwarandcontemptiblediplomaticmeans.“Followingisachartaboutmilitaryeuphemisms.〞[18]HorrificexpressionEuphemismairstrikeairoptionbombingandblastingsofteninguptheresistanceciviliancasualtiescollateraldamagedefensecrusheddefenseneutralizedgroundwargroundoperationinvasionpre-emptiveactionmissileVehiclenuclearbombnucleardeviceretreatstrategicwithdrawalsuicidalattackone-waymissionwarheadpayloadTherearealsosomeeuphemismsabouteconomy.“Peopleuse‘depression’insteadof‘economiccrises’.Theword‘Striking’hasbeenbeautifiedas‘industrialaction’.〞[19]andwhenpeoplementionedslum,theyoftenuse“substandardhousing〞toreplaceit.“Theeuphemismshereareinthetruesenseoftheword“false.〞Theyareusedtocoverupthetruenatureofevents,deceivingthepublicwithnice-soundingandpseudotechnicalwords.〞[20]3.4InducingfunctionSometimes,peopleuseeuphemismtomakethEirstatementmorepersuasive.Thusthecosmeticwordshaveaspecialmunicativefunction,whichiscalledinducingfunction.AsChannellhasanalyzedinthediscussionofthemunicativefunctionsofvaguelanguagethat“Aspecificsettingwherespeakersmaywithholdinformationwhichtheyknowiswheretheyfeelthattheycanbemorepersuasivebydoingso.〞[21]Euphemismhasbeenwidelyappliedinadvertisementandsalespromotionactivities.Someairlinepaniesdividedthegradesofpassengerpartmentsintofourranks.Theyused“deluxe〞or“premiumclass〞toreplace“firstclass〞.Andthe“secondclass〞istransformedinto“firstclass〞.The“thirdclass〞isrevisedas“businessclass〞or“touristclass〞.Theysoundmorepleasing.Theroomsofhotelarealsopartmentalizedinthesameway.Theycanbedividedasfirstclass,standardandprivate.Thosewordsaresweetsoundingandhavenothingtodowithcustomers’self-esteem.Also,“‘a(chǎn)ntiques’isthesubstitutionof‘second-handfurniture’.〞[22]Inthemerchants’eye,theformerwillmakethepricehigher.Peopleoftenuse“pactcar〞toreplace“smallcar〞.ThoughthEIrmeaningsarethesame,“small〞willbeassociatedwithanimageofcheapandbadwhile“pact〞emphasizestheimageofartistic,delicate,andterse.Thoseeuphemismsdesalinatetheunpleasantfeelingthattheformerconceptsgiveusandintensifyafeelingofmorereliableandelegant.Asaresult,thoseproductswillbeidentifiedwiththeconsumersandachievedthepromotiongoal.“Fromthepragmaticview,theachievingofinducingfunctioniscausedbytheglorificationoftheintrinsicmeaning.〞[23]3.5TacticalfunctionIfasamemeaningisexpressedinmanydifferentways,theireffectsareentirelydifferent.Thisiswhatwecalledtheartofspeaking.Ifweapplythisstrategytoourdailylife,ourlifewillbemorecolorful.Forexample,ontheplane,therearesomebagsthatcanbeusedbythepassengerstoshoothiscookies.Peopledon’tprintthewords“vomitbag〞onthesurfaceofthebag.Instead,theyusethewords“formotiondisfort〞.[24]Andtheresultprovedthatthevomitphenomenonhasreduced.Becauseparedwiththeformerwords,theword“formotiondisfort〞preventsthepassengersfromvomitingwheninastateofairsickness.Thisisthetacticalfunctionofeuphemism.Bycontrary,ifweuseeuphemisminappropriately,theresultwouldbeworse.Trytoparethefollowingtwostatements:(9)Iamanoldcripple,drawinganold-agepension,workinghardtoraisevastquantitiesofvegetablesonanallotmentandwellawarethat,oneofthesedays,Ishalldie.(10)If,however,Ilistentothevoiceofofficialdom,itturnsoutthatIamadisadvantagedseniorcitizen,registeredasdisabled,drawingaretirementpension,rentingaleisuregardenand,presumably,immortalbecauseIshallneverdie---Ishallmerelypassaway.Wecanseethatinthefirststatement,theauthortalksdirectlyabouthislifestatus.Thesecondstatementisthatthegovernmentofficialsmakeasurveyofthehardshipofcitizens.Theytrytocoverthefactsbyusingeuphemisms.3.6HumorfunctionJoculareuphemismhasbeenusedtohelppeoplefacethefactmoreeasily.Forexample,peopleuse“pushupdaisies〞totakeplaceof“beburied〞becausetheformerwordscanreducepeople’shorrortowardsdeath.And“besentintoprison〞isreplacedby“l(fā)iveatgovernment’sexpense〞.Thisexpressioniswitty.Anotherexample,“afterthreedaysinJapan,thespinalcolumnbeesextraordinarilyflexible.〞ItsimplicatureisthatinJapan,peopleareverypolite.Theyusuallybowmanytimesadaytogreetsomeone.4.Euphemismandpoliteness4.1EuphemismandinterpersonalmunicationEuphemismhasbeenwidelyusedintherealhumanmunication.Itcanberegardedasakindofpoliteterms.Inprimitiveandtraditionalsociety,tabooandeuphemismarethetwosidesofacoin.Theyareusedforsocialcontrolandreligiouscontrol.AndinmodernEnglish,thereareanumberofwordsconnectedwithholy,sex,bodyorganandbodyfunction.Sowhenpeople’stopicreferstothose,theyhavetofindeuphemismstoreplacethem.Theyoftenusesomevaguelanguagetoavoidmentioningthemdirectly.4.2Politenessandface-threateningtheoryThemainfunctionofeuphemismispolitefunction.Thus,themaincharacterofeuphemismispolite.Politenessplaysanimportantroleinhumanmunication.Itoilshumanrelationships.Soeuphemismaccordswithpolitenesswillacceleratehumanmunication.4.2.1Thedefinitionandfeaturesofpoliteness“Weviewpolitenessasoneofthemajorsocialconstrainsonhumaninteractionwhichregulatesparticipants’municativebehaviorbyconstantlyremindingthemtotakeintoconsiderationthefeelingsoftheothers.Itisnecessarytoconsidertheirfeelingssoastoestablishlevelsofmutualfortandpromoterapport,whichinturnaccelerateandfacilitatehumanmunication.〞[25]Thefinalgoalofpolitenessistomakeallofthepartiesrelaxedandfortablewithoneanother.Therearetwokindsofpoliteness:oneisnegativepoliteness;theotherispositivepoliteness.Negativepolitenessistomakealessinfringingrequest,suchas"Ifyoudon'tmind..."or"Ifitisn'ttoomuchtrouble..."orrespectsaperson'srighttoactfreely.Inotherwords,it’sdeference.Positivepolitenessistoseektoestablishapositiverelationshipbetweenpartiesandrespectsaperson'sneedtobelikedandunderstood.4.2.2Face-threateningtheoryFaceisdefinedasanindividual’sself-esteem.“BasedonthefacenotionofGoffmanthat“face〞isasacredthingforeveryhumanbeing,anessentialfactormunicatorshavetopayattentionto,andthatfacewantsarereciprocal(ifonewantshisfacecaredfor,heshouldcareforotherpeople’sface).〞[26]AccordingtoBrownandLevinson,nearlyallspeechactsareface-threateningacts.Therearetwokindsofface:oneisPositiveFace;theotherisNegativeFace.“PositiveFacereferstoourneedtobeacceptedandlikedbyothersandourneedtofeelthatoursocialgroupsharesmongoals.PositivePolitenessorientstopreservingthepositivefaceofotherpeople.Whenweusepositivepolitenessweusespeechstrategiesthatemphasizeoursolidaritywiththehearer,suchasinformationpronunciation,shareddialectorslangexpressions,nicknames,morefrequentreferencetospeakerandheareras“we〞,andrequestswhicharelessindirect.NegativeFacereferstoourrighttoindependenceofactionandourneednottobeimposedonbyothers.NegativePolitenessorientstopreservingthenegativefaceofotherpeople.Thisismuchmorelikelyifthereisasocialdistancebetweenthespeakerandthehearer.Whenweusenegativepoliteness,weusespeechstrategiesthatemphasizeourdeferenceforthehearer.Nicknames,slangandinformalpronunciationtendtobeavoidedandrequeststendtobemoreindirectandimpersonal,ofteninvolvingcouldyou…orcouldIaskyouto…orevenreferringtothehearerinthethirdperson.〞[27]4.2.3TherelationshipbetweenpolitenessandfacewantFacereferstoourpublicself-image.Politenessinvolvesusshowinganawarenessofotherpeople’sfacewant.Inourinterpersonalmunication,weshouldpayattentiontoother’sfacewant.Inthefieldofeducation,teacherhastodealwiththerelationswiththestudents.Therearesomeeuphemismsabouteducation.Forexample,ifastudentislazy,wedon’tcallhim“l(fā)azystudent〞.Instead,wecallhim“underachiever〞.Ifastudentcheatsinclass,weregarditthathedependsonotherstodohiswork.“Andifastudentisquarter-wittedandheusuallygetsalowmarkintheexams,wedon’tcallhimstupid.Sowhentheteachertalkswiththechild’sparents,theteacherwouldsay:‘Yourchildisabitslowforhisage.’〞[28]Hesaysthefactinaroundaboutwaysoitwillnothurttheparents’andthechild’sself-esteem.Itisaface-savingstrategy.Inshort,inpeople’sdailymunication,theyhavetobepolitetosaveeachother’sfaceandmaketheirrelationsmoreharmoniously.Theycanachievethisgoalbyusingeuphemismsbecausetheyaresweet-sounding.Andthisisthepolitefunctionofeuphemism.5.EuphemismandPolitenessPrincipleFromtheabove,weknowthateuphemismhassomethingtodowithpoliteness.WecanassociatepolitenesswithPolitenessPrinciple.5.1Leech’spolitenessprinciple(1)TactMaxim(inimpositivesandmissives)a.Minimizecosttoother;b.Maximizebenefittoother.Someexamples:a、Ifyoukeepthisdiet,you’llbeontheheavyside.(c.f.:Ifyoukeeponeatingtoomuch,you’llbeeveryfat.)b、Thankyouforyourkindhospitality.(c.f.:Thankyouforyourdeliciousfood.)(2)GenerosityMaxim(inimpositivesandmissives)a.Minimizebenefittoself;b.Maximizecosttoself.Someexamples:a、Wouldyoudomeafavor?(c.f.:Canyouhelpme?)b、Ishallneverceasetofeelgratefulforyourfavors.(c.f.:Ishallneverceasetofeelgratefulforyourhelp.)(3)ApprobationMaxim(inexpressivesandassertives)a.Minimizedispraiseofother;b.Maximizepraiseofother.Someexamples:a、Heisaseniorcitizennow.(c.f.:Heisanoldmannow.)b、CaoYuisaShakespeareofChina.(c.f.:CaoYuisthebestplaywrightofChina.)(4)ModestyMaxim(inexpressivesandassertives)a.Minimizepraiseofself;b.Maximizedispraiseofself.Someexamples:a、Thisisatokenofmyregardforyou.(c.f.:Thisisapresentforyou.)b、Yourpraiseisthehighesthonorforme.(c.f.:Thankyouforyourpraise.)(5)AgreementMaxim(inassertives)a.Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother;b.Maximizeagreementbetweenselfandother.Someexamples:a、Icouldn’tsharethesameideawithyou.(c.f.:Idon’tagreewithyou.)b、Ifyouwereinmyposition,youwoulddothesame.(c.f.:Ihavetodoso.)(6)SympathyMaxim(inassertives)a.Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandother;b.Maximizesympathybetweenselfandother.〞[29]Someexamples:a、IamsorrytohearthatyourfatherrestedinAbraham’sarms.(c.f.:Iamsorrytohearthatyourfatherisdead.)b、IfIwereyou,Iwouldhavetakenarouteofegressasyoudid.(c.f.:IfIhadbeeninyourposition,Iwouldhavebeendefeatedbythemightyenemy,too.)Leechtiespolitenesstotherelationshipbetweenbothpartiesandthelanguageused.Heclaimsthat“static〞feature,suchassocialdistance,interactwith“dynamic〞features,suchasthekindofillocutionarydemandthespeakerismakingonthemaker,toproduceanappropriatedegreeofpoliteness.Thecoreofhispolitenessistominimizetheexpressionofimpolitebenefits.5.2PolitefunctionandPolitenessPrinciplePolitefunctionisthebasicsocialfunctionofeuphemism.AndPolitenessPrincipleshowsthisfunction.EuphemismalwaysabidesbythePolitenessPrinciple.Insuchacase,euphemismcanmakepeople’srelationshipmoreharmonious.Buttherearealsosomeexceptions.EuphemismsofmilitarydonotaccordwithPolitenessprinciplemostofthetime.5.3PolitenessPrincipleandthecooperativePrincipleThePolitenessPrincipleshowsequalandfriendlyrelationshipsbetweenpeopleinthesociety.Itdemandsthatinmunication,thespeakershouldcooperatewiththehearer.Thetwopartiesuseeuphemismstoreplaceharshwordsbecauseitcanmeetthepsychologicalneedsofface-want.Andthelanguageusedbythetwopartiesshouldbeappropriate.Generallyspeaking,theappropriatenessofthespeechiscloselyrelatedwitheuphemism.However,“TheMaximofRelevance〞ofGrice’s“CooperativePrinciple〞limitsthechoiceofeuphemism.Hesuggeststhatinmunication,thereplyofthehearershouldbecloselyrelatedtothespeechofthespeaker.In